Ancestry & Evolution Archives - Genetic Literacy Project: Recent Episodes
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Over the last decade, a growing chorus of scientists has declared that biological sex is not binary. Properly assessing human diversity requires us to apply a broader definition of this word, the argument goes. “The term ‘biological sex’ has been used to sort all people into one of two groups,” a May open letter from hundreds of scientists to the UK’s Minister for Women and Equalities asserted. “However, a strict, binary categorization is an over-simplification.”
The letter – signed by more than 350 academics, clinicians, and activists – is carefully argued, meticulously footnoted—and fundamentally mistaken about a basic biological reality. “Such statements … are most astounding as they ignore or even reject the well-established biological concept of sex and, thus, they ultimately deny fundamental principles of biology,” a team of evolutionary biologists wrote in 2023, responding to similar statements published by several academic journals.
Evolution, a scientific concept as well established as gravity, excludes the idea of a sex spectrum by confirming that biological sex is a binary trait in humans and most mammals. Evolution has shaped organisms to maximize reproductive success, resulting in two distinct sexes—male and female—defined by their roles in producing sperm or eggs. Males produce small, mobile gametes (sperm), while females produce larger, resource-heavy gametes (eggs). This binary system, driven by the need for genetic recombination, is a fundamental mechanism of sexual reproduction, observable across species. “With a few exceptions, all sexually reproducing organisms generate exactly two types of gametes that are distinguished by their difference in size,” the 2023 essay added.
Intersex conditions, which are rare (approximately 0.018% of the population) and often involve ambiguous genitalia or chromosomal variations, are medical anomalies, not evidence of new sexes or a spectrum. They do not alter the binary framework, as they typically derive from disruptions in male or female developmental pathways.
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UPThe notion of a “sex spectrum” conflates sex with gender identity or secondary sexual characteristics, ignoring the objective, gamete-based definition of sex. Evolutionary biology shows no mechanism for a continuum of sexes. Scientists who endorse the sex spectrum often prioritize social or ideological considerations over empirical evidence, denying the binary reality established by evolutionary pressures.
By rejecting these basic facts, sex-spectrum advocates undermine the rigor of biology, misrepresenting a field that relies on testable, reproducible evidence. They also fuel mistrust of science, making it even harder for experts to convince the public that their scientific and medical claims are grounded in solid evidence.
Join Dr. Liza Dunn and Cam English on this episode of Facts and Fallacies as they discuss the science of reproduction and raise some critical questions about the sex spectrum.
Dr. Liza Dunn is a medical toxicologist and the medical affairs lead at Bayer Crop Science. Follow her on X @DrLizaMD
Cameron J. English is the director of bio-sciences at the American Council on Science and Health. Follow him on X @camjenglish
Historically, many thought that humans were the only animals that could recognize an external beat and synchronously move to it. But in 2007, Snowball the cockatoo went viral for dancing to the rhythm of the Backstreet Boys. Then, in 2013, Ronan the sea lion similarly acquired world fame for moving her head rhythmically to the beat of music.
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UPThese two case studies are part of a growing field of research set on trying to understand which animals have the capacity to be musical, providing clues on how and why music evolved in humans.
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Looking at similarities and differences between our closest living relatives, primates, can provide clues into whether music shares a common ancestral origin. In humans, if we are walking or typing and listening to music, we naturally sync up to the rhythm. In studies conducted by Yuko Hattori, an assistant professor at Kyoto University’s Primate Research Institute, chimpanzees were able to synchronize their movement to a variety of rhythms.
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Movements from primates in these studies are not as precise as humans, but one hypothesis used to explain the origins of music could help explain the differences. It suggests that in humans, our ability to move in time with a beat stems from vocal learning.
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Trump has deployed in his administration and in his relationships with billionaires a group of the old and new eugenicists. Some of these leading men believe in a philosophy known as longtermism. For humanity to survive and spread itself across the galaxy in its trillions in the eons to come, men like them must steer the way.
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And with Trump, men like Musk are guiding US domestic and foreign policies in eugenicist and longtermist ways, leaving millions in actual or potential peril.
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UPTogether with Trump, Kennedy and Musk have done their level best to remake the federal government in their own eugenicist images. … This renewed commitment to limit federal government resources dedicated towards the health and safety of all Americans has eugenics and longtermism written all over it.
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Their reluctance to help people in need and their belief that those with physical and intellectual disabilities (particularly those who are elderly or autistic) are a drain on economic resources are all part of a view that many Americans are expendable, even unto death.
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One of my favorite summer chores is finding a new book to take from the beach to the pool. … In Gut Feelings: The Microbiome of Our Health, pediatric gastroenterologist Alessio Fasano, MD, teams up with science writer Susie Flaherty to explore the intricate ways our microbiomes shape everything from digestion and immunity to mood and memory.
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UP[I]n Everything is Tuberculosis: The History and Persistence of Our Deadliest Infection. John Green … explores the scientific and social history of one of the most deadly and prevalent infectious diseases across humanity’s history.
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Lost Women of Science has written a book with the same name that tells the stories of ten revolutionary women in STEM.
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Genesis: Artificial Intelligence, Hope, and the Human Spirit, seeks to assess the profound challenges and opportunities that have emerged with the growth of AI.
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In 2021, the small village of Kanaani in eastern Kenya faced a devastating drought. For months, rain was scarce, leaving fields parched and livestock starving. By the end of 2022, many families were in a full-fledged hunger crisis, unable to afford spiking food prices. However, Danson Mutua, a local farmer, weathered the crisis better than most.
His secret? He had gradually replaced maize (known in much of the world as “corn”), Kenya’s staple crop, with drought-resistant alternatives such as sorghum and protein-rich legumes like pigeon pea and mung bean (also known as “green gram”). These crops required fewer inputs and offered better yields in arid conditions.
Mutua’s story reflects the broader challenges faced across sub-Saharan Africa, where hunger has surged in recent years. According to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), more than 700 million people worldwide were undernourished in 2023 (1), with the highest prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. Conflict, economic shocks, and climate change have all contributed to this crisis, but a critical, often overlooked factor is the reliance on crops like maize that are ill-suited to the region’s climate and soil conditions.
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UPThe Maize DilemmaMaize, introduced to Africa after 1500, quickly became a dietary staple. Its popularity soared in the colonial era, as European settlers promoted high-yielding varieties. By the late 20th century, maize accounted for more than half of all calories consumed in countries like Malawi and Zambia. Today, it is a dietary mainstay, consumed as flour, porridge, or in fermented dishes.
However, maize has significant limitations. It requires nutrient-rich soils and ample water at specific stages of growth. Many of Africa’s soils lack key nutrients, and fertilizers used to boost yields often deplete the land further. Additionally, maize is highly vulnerable to climate extremes. In Kenya, a recent two-year drought linked to global warming led to a 22% drop in maize production (2) and displaced a million people across eastern Africa. Climate models predict that maize yields in tropical regions will decline by 5% for every degree Celsius of warming, with eastern Africa particularly at risk.
Rediscovering Indigenous CropsIn contrast to maize, many of Africa’s traditional crops are better adapted to the continent’s diverse climates. Sorghum, millet, pigeon peas, and native legumes are drought-tolerant and nutrient-rich, making them ideal for arid regions. Yet, these crops have been historically neglected by agronomic research, earning them the moniker “orphan crops.” Their yields are often lower than their potential due to vulnerabilities to pests and diseases.
Efforts to improve these crops are gaining momentum, however. In 2023, the U.S. Department of State partnered with the African Union, the FAO, and global agricultural institutions to launch the Vision for Adapted Crops and Soils (3) (VACS). This initiative aims to accelerate research and development for traditional crops and restore Africa’s depleted soils. With funding pledges totaling $200 million, VACS represents a significant shift in agricultural policy, moving away from promoting monoculture systems dominated by maize toward embracing crop diversity.
“One of the things our community has always cried for is how to raise the profile of these crops and get them on the global agenda,” says Tafadzwa Mabhaudhi (4), a professor of climate change, food systems, and health at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Science and Innovation to the RescueScientific advances are key to unlocking the potential of indigenous crops. The African Orphan Crops Consortium (5) (AOCC), a collaboration involving CGIAR (6) (a global partnership among organizations doing research on food security) and the University of California, Davis, has been sequencing the genomes of understudied crops and training African scientists in plant breeding. These efforts are enabling researchers to develop drought-resistant and pest-resistant varieties faster. Modern tools like CRISPR gene editing offer additional promise, allowing scientists to enhance disease resistance by mimicking traits found in wild plants.
For example, egusi (7), (the protein-rich seeds of certain cucurbitaceous (8) plants such as squash, melon, and gourd), which is popular in West Africa, has the potential to combat malnutrition and thrive in dry regions. Breeding varieties with shorter growth cycles could make this crop more viable in arid areas. Similarly, pigeon peas and millet could play a significant role in addressing dietary deficiencies and reducing reliance on maize.
Overcoming Cultural and Market BarriersDespite their advantages, reintroducing indigenous crops into African diets poses challenges. The cultural significance of maize has become deeply entrenched, and many farmers are reluctant to switch to alternatives. As Florence Wambugu (9), CEO of Africa Harvest, observes, “People plant maize, harvest nothing, and still plant maize the next season.”
Urbanization also complicates efforts to revive traditional foods. Sub-Saharan Africa’s population is projected to double by 2050, with many young people gravitating toward Westernized diets. To succeed, proponents of indigenous crops must find ways to market them to urban populations and integrate them into modern supply chains.
A Path ForwardThe push to revive Africa’s orphan crops is about more than food security; it is about resilience and sustainability. By reducing dependence on maize and other climate-vulnerable staples, Africa will be better able to withstand the impacts of climate change. Diversifying crops also has the potential to improve nutrition, combat malnutrition, and empower smallholder farmers by opening new markets.
Programs like VACS and AOCC are steps in the right direction, but success will require collaboration among governments, researchers, and farmers. Policymakers must invest in infrastructure and education to make traditional crops viable options for both rural and urban communities. Scientists must continue to innovate, and farmers will need support to transition to more sustainable practices.
As the world faces an uncertain future, Africa’s past may hold the key to a more secure and sustainable food system. By embracing its agricultural heritage, the continent can chart a path toward greater resilience in economic and food security.
(1) https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen–un-report
(2) https://www.technologyreview.com/2024/10/14/1105070/africa-crops-maize-kenya-climate-change-agriculture/
(3) https://www.state.gov/the-vision-for-adapted-crops-and-soils/
(4) https://www.technologyreview.com/2024/10/14/1105070/africa-crops-maize-kenya-climate-change-agriculture/
(5) https://africanorphancrops.org/
(6) https://www.cgiar.org/
(7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egusi
(8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbitaceous
(9) https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.linknovate.com/search/?query=nairobi%252520restaurant%252520specializing&ved=2ahUKEwiPusS-3JGLAxWqMDQIHS6LBtwQFnoECCwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw0NUUUZ-nkcyQKo0TEfaCsH
Henry I. Miller is a physician and molecular biologist and the Glenn Swogger Distinguished Fellow at the American Council on Science and Health. He was the founding director of the U.S. FDA’s Office of Biotechnology. Follow Henry on X @henryimiller
A version of this article was posted in European Scientist. Follow European Scientist on X @EuropeanScientist
[Australian Ken] Ham is founder and CEO of Answers in Genesis [AIG], which opened the Ark Encounter in 2016. The Christian theme park includes a zoo, zip lines and other attractions surrounding the ark. …
Nearly a decade earlier, Answers in Genesis opened a Creation Museum in nearby Petersburg, Kentucky, where exhibits similarly argue for a literal interpretation of the biblical creation narrative. Visitors are greeted with a diorama depicting children and dinosaurs interacting peacefully in the Garden of Eden. The group also produces books, podcasts, videos and homeschooling curricula.
“The main message of both attractions is basically this: The history in the Bible is true,” Ham says. “That’s why the message of the Gospel based on that history is true.”
Follow the latest news and policy debates on sustainable agriculture, biomedicine, and other ‘disruptive’ innovations. Subscribe to our newsletter.SIGN UP[Professors Susan and Bill Trollinger] wrote that the [AIG] enterprise is an “arsenal in the culture war.” They say it aligns with Christian nationalism, promoting conservative views in theology, family and gender roles, and casting doubt on other areas of scientific consensus, such as human-made climate change.
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