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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of SlimeEpisode #_1_ Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Agathe and my name is Beck. We are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Slime. Today we will be deep-diving into the chemistry of slime. We will discuss not only what slime is but also how it is made.

Segment 1: Introduction to SlimeSlime—something we all know and love. Typically, you see it on TikTok or Instagram, where someone mixes glue and an unknown clear substance in a bowl, ultimately creating a fun, rubbery material. It is enjoyable to play with, poke, stretch, and make large bubbles with, but what makes slime the way it is, and what allows it to behave like that?

Slime is made by mixing glue with an activator containing boric acid. Typically, people use borax, a common clothing cleaner, mixed with water and then add it to the glue.

But Beck, what if I don't have Borax, or what if my parents dont let me use such a strong cleaner, especially when I am making slime with my little sister

Others like myself, who prefer to avoid strong chemicals, tend to use baking soda and contact solution. Which works just as well and is much more accessible and safe. The resulting substance is rubbery and molten, yet not sticky, allowing it to be played with for hours. But the interesting question is why is slime the way it is, why is it moldable but not sticky.

Put a pin in that Beck we will talk about that later. Another fun aspect of slime is that it can be tailored to anyone's preferences, with its color, texture, and size changing depending on the added ingredients. This versatility makes slime a popular and customizable activity for many.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind SlimeGoing back to your question from earlier beck Topic one: The formation of PVA/borate cross-linked polymer (How is Slime Made?)

glue is made up of PVA chains, which are basically long chains of CH2, Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Then we have, borate ions which are found in the activator, which are made up of boron bonded to hydrogen and oxygen. When mixed together, the borate ions bond the PVA chains of the glue together, creating a fishnet structure which is called cross-linking. So beck, What type of bonds connect the Borate to PVA?

Well it is actually hydrogen bonds, which are a type of intermolecular dipole dipole force that is very strong. They are formed when hydrogen is bonded to a very electronegative element, either Nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The resulting bond is very strong and allows slime to be formed. But one thing you will notice is that when making slime it actually get colder, why is that Agathe

Interestingly, the reaction is endothermic, meaning it absorbs energy in the form of heat from its surroundings to form new bonds, causing the slime to feel cold. The endothermic nature of the reaction is due to the formation of these hydrogen bonds, which requires a lot of energy to be created.

Wow! That is so interesting Agathe! Now I know how slime is made. You know, once I made slime and I stretched it so much that it created a big bubble, when it popped it got into my sister's hair.

That is insane! But how does slime get that stretchy? I thought hydrogen bonds were super strong

Topic 2: Why is slime stretchy?

Good question Agathe leading us to topic 2! Slimes' flexible nature is actually due the hydrogen bonds between the borate and PVC molecules.

No way! That seems so counterintuitive.

The hydrogen bonds within slime are strong enough to keep the slime intact when stretched but also flexible enough to allow movement within the polymer network.

Ahhh i see. Wait but last time I made slime with mr johnson he told me to add in lotion he said it would make it stretchier. I told him that didn't sound right to me. Who was right?

Mr Johnson actually is! Adding lotion to the slime introduces glycerin, which interacts with the hydrogen bonds.

Ugh whatever, what even is glycerin

It is an odorless carbohydrate liquid that has a sweet taste and a syrupy consistency. While glycerin occurs naturally in plants through the fermentation of sugars, most of the glycerin nowadays is produced from factories. They are able to form hydrogen bonds with the PVA.

Oh I see so the glycerin replaces some of the existing hydrogen bonds, instead hydrogen bonding to the PVA, making the whole substance weaker and more flexible. But not too much so that it becomes a liquid.

Yes, This results in the slime becoming even stretchier, as the weaker bonds can extend further while still maintaining the overall structure of the slime. Thus, the stretchiness is a balance between the strong, flexible bonds and the weakened bonds introduced by the lotion, providing both resilience and extensibility.

That's so cool. I love that!

Why are we here today

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Well Beck, we both loved the idea of the chemistry behind slime because it is such a simple thing to make that many kids love; however, we never thought of how these liquids turn into solids without heat or outside forces. Many times students don’t remember what is taught in school, however, I believe that when we focus on subjects we enjoy, this is what we will remember for the rest of our lives.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://stemium.com/slime-science-project/

https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/ScienceofSlime_student.pdf

https://www.steamworks.org.uk/how-does-slime-work/#:~:text=Slime%20is%20wet%20because%20water,be%20pulled%20into%20stretchy%20shapes.

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of AntacidsEpisode #5Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Janya and Arya and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Antacids, which is also what we will be discussing today.

Segment 1: Introduction to AntacidsFor this segment we are going to be talking about what antacids are, and in what situations they can be used for.

Do you know what antacids are?

Not really….

Well, they are medicines used to treat heartburn and indigestion!

But what is heartburn exactly? Is you’re heart on fire?

Noooo. Heartburn is caused by excess stomach acid that travels up the esophagus.

Sounds gross!

Well, if you want to reduce them, you can reduce the amount of acid in your stomach, by eating less acidic foods for example.

Some acidic foods include tomatoes, oranges, and… chocolate. (yes if you want to have less heartburns, you have to eat less chocolate).

Right, so when you eat less of these foods, the acid won’t have a chance to travel up the esophagus. I get it now!

Antacids also do the same thing, because it reduces the amount of acid that’s in your stomach (technically, the excess acid)

And your problem is solved!

But not really, because this didn’t treat the actual cause of heartburns or indigestion

• They usually relieve symptoms for a few hours, so it is not a permanent solution
• Antacids can be found in liquid form as well as tablet form, but liquid form works better (don’t really need to say)
• Antacids helps to relieve a variety of symptoms such as a burning sensation/pain in your chest/stomach, acidic taste in your mouth, feeling of being bloated.
• More serious problems which antacids can help treat include: acid reflux (GERD), stomach lining inflammation (gastritis), and stomach ulcers
• Some common active ingredients in antacids include aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and salts (sodium).
• These active ingredients help raise the pH level in the stomach, reducing the acidity and providing temporary relief from symptoms. Antacids typically provide quick but short-term relief and are not intended for long-term use. It's important to follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate usage and dosage recommendations.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Antacids1. Acid-base reactions (Active ingredients) 2. There are lots of ways to define acids, bases and acid-base reactions. One of them is called Bronsted-Lowry theory and involves the transfer of a proton. The acid and base react together to form a conjugate base and acid, which remains in the stomach to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach. The bronsted-lowry acid donates a proton, while the bronsted-lowry base accepts a proton, so the conjugate base will accept the proton and neutralize the acid. Often times, these reactions produce a gas (ex: carbon dioxide) and water. In an antacid, the weak base neutralizes the acid that’s in your stomach by stopping the enzyme which creates acid for the break down of food for digestion (known as pepsin). Antacids usually contain various active ingredients, such as aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate. Almost all antacids act on excess stomach acid by neutralizing it with these weak bases. Strong bases aren’t used because it disrupts the pH of important organs in the body, which could lead to the damage of these organs 3. CaCO3 ​​​​​​(s) + HCl (aq) → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) (aq) + CaCl2 (calcium chloride) (aq) 4. H2CO3 (aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) 5. This is the reaction between calcium carbonate (an active ingredient in Tums) and HCl 6. The active ingredients that were mentioned help to maintain the pH stability of the stomach. They help to raise the pH level in the stomach by reducing the acidity and providing relief from the symptoms. 7. pH scale (Buffer) 8. The pH scale determines how acidic or basic water is. The range is 0 to 14, with 7 representing neutrality. Acidity is indicated by pH values below 7, whereas baseness is shown by pH values above 7. In reality, pH is a measurement of the amount of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water. 9. A buffer is a substance that can withstand a pH shift when acidic or basic substances are added. Small additions of acid or base can be neutralized by it, keeping the pH of the solution largely constant. 10. A buffer's job in the body is to keep both intracellular and extracellular pH levels within a relatively small range and to resist against pH variations brought on by both internal and external factors. 11. The buffer that is created in your stomach after taking an antacid table keeps the pH in your stomach acid from changing significantly. That buffer is compose of two particles which are HCO3 (bicarbonate) and CO3 (carbonate) 12. Antacids contain a buffer that maintains the pH of the stomach. Most of the antacids have a net pH above 7 for the sole purpose of maintaining pH stability in the stomach.

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsBoth of us have an interest in medicine, and this topic interests us as we have had personal experience with using an antacid. We have used it for indigestion and heartburns previously, and has worked very well. Another indirect use of it has been to treat mouth ulcers.

When I had a mouth ulcer, I used antacid by dabbing some on the mouth ulcer, and it worked almost immediately. The pain significantly reduced, and the swelling also reduced over time. My mouth felt chalky due to the base in the antacid, but it significantly helped with reducing the symptoms. It’s important because many people experience indigestion, heartburn, and ulcer everyday, so it’s good that this medicine can treat a very common problem.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:* https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/23076-antacid * https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heartburn/symptoms-causes/syc-20373223 * http://www.chem.latech.edu/~deddy/chem104/104Antacid.htm * https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Riverland_Community_College/CHEM_1000_-_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Riverland)/17%3A_Acids_and_Bases/17.08%3A_Acids_and_Bases_in_Industry_and_in_Daily_Life

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of FoxglovesEpisode #2Welcome to Chemistry Connections! Our names are Samiyah and Raelynn and we are your hosts for episode #2 called The Chemistry of Foxgloves. Today we will be discussing the scientific properties behind these flowers that have the “power to cure and kill.”

Segment 1: Introduction to Foxgloves* Foxgloves, also known as the Digitalis flowers, are striking plants that look like elegant bunches of upside-down bells, and while their most common species are purple, and are known as the Digitalis purpurea, they come in a variety of colors including white, yellow, and pink amongst others. Native to Europe, western Asia, and northwestern Africa, they can grow up to 60 inches tall, and are biennial or perennial, flowering from June to September. * They have both healing and toxic properties, and are known as the flower with the “power to cure and kill"; it's likely for this reason that they represent insincerity- while on the surface gifting someone a bouquet of these alluring flowers may seem like a nice gesture, it could signify your ill will towards them. * So while compounds synthesized from these beautiful plants may be part of your daily medications- don't gift them to your significant other!

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Foxgloves Context: * Foxgloves are made up of glycoside molecules, which are steroid groups bonded to a sugar, called digoxin and digitoxin. * The foxglove extract, which contains these glycosides, is known as digitalis, which is named after the plant’s Latin name. * Chemistry topic: bonding/structure * Molecules * Molecules are covalently bonded nonmetals; what sets them apart from ionic bonding or ions is because nonmetals have very high electronegativity values, and as such all of the atoms involved in bonding would pull on the electrons in an equally strong way, thus resulting in strong covalent bonds resulting in molecules. * While looking at the structures of these molecules, digitoxin, and digoxin, it’s also easy to spot the large amount of OH groups that they both possess- indeed, both of them possess almost identical chemical structures, though notably, digoxin has an extra OH group thus causing the differences between the two compounds. This large amount of OH groups leads to increased polarity within both of the glycosides, which leads to increased water solubility. This is because water molecules themselves are also polar, and “like dissolves like” as the saying goes; as such, polar substances like these glycosides are highly soluble in water. * While they have similar properties, digitoxin has a longer half-life than digoxin, making individuals more susceptible to toxicity and thus kidney failure, as it removes the system from the equilibrium needed to maintain health, which we'll discuss shortly. * Chemistry topic: equilibrium * Digoxin is a key compound in the ability of digitalis to provide both beneficial and harmful effects, and does so through the sodium-potassium ion pumps found in heart cells. * These pumps push ions against the concentration gradients to establish a greater concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a greater concentration of potassium ions inside the cell. * Aids in maintaining cellular equilibrium * Digoxin prevents sodium ions from crossing the cell membrane and exiting the cell, therefore disturbing equilibrium. This causes the intracellular concentration of calcium to increase and the heart beats slower. * Therapeutic effects: * Can be used to treat arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) and heart failure * Healing properties were introduced by William Withering in his book An Account of the Foxglove* (1785) * Developed a cure for dropsy (a condition currently known as “edema” in which the area under the skin swells with fluid) * His work paved the way for the use of foxglove extract in treatments for heart failure * Toxic effects: * Can slow the heart to an extreme, depriving the brain of oxygen * Could result in a heart attack as the body attempts to raise the heart rate in response

Figure 1

Segment 3: Personal Connections* It’s interesting how the unique chemical makeup of a flower can cause it to have such drastically different effects: * Digitalis’ ability to heal or poison comes down to the molecular structure of digitoxin and digoxin and the specific ways in which they interact with cellular components of the human body * Points to the importance of understanding chemistry in order to use these substances properly * Raelynn: “it symbolizes life, what can save you can also kill you” * Samiyah: "fascinating … and I've just loved poison since I was small."

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:* Digitalis (Wikipedia) * Foxglove (Britannica) * Foxglove (Woodland Trust) * The Chemistry of Foxgloves—Poison & Medicine (CompoundChem) * The Folklore of Flowers: Belladonna, Foxgloves & Angel's Trumpet (Icy Sedgwick) * Shortage of Digitoxin and Switching to Digoxin in Norway: A Retrospective Study of Blood Samples Submitted to a Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory (Wiley Online Library) * Mechanisms Underlying Anti-hyperalgesic Properties of Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside Isolated from Dryopteris cycadina (ResearchGate) * CK-12 (image) * Chemistry Learner (image)

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Snake VenomEpisode # 6 Segment 1: Introduction to Snake Venoms* 2 Main categories of venomous snakes * Elapids * Elapids * Any of 300 species of venomous snakes (all venomous) * Short, fixed fangs at the front of the Jaw * Long, slender bodies with small heads * Mostly lay eggs, but a few do bear living young (largely only Australian species) * Bite with a downward strike, and often chew prey to envenomate * Bite relatively painless, but can kill quickly through paralysis of heart and lung muscles * Cobra relatives * Talk about fang structure * General characteristics * Viperids (Vipers) * Over 200 related species * Long, hollow fangs that are folded back to the roof of the mouth until striking * Some species, known as pit vipers, have a temperature-sensing organ that allows them to hunt warm-blooded prey even when they cannot see * Large venom glands lead to a more triangular or pear-shaped head * Fang structure and general characteristics

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Snake VenomsHave a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

• Viperid and elapid venom mechanism of action
• Viperid - hemolytic and necrotic
• How and why
• Specific example - Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
• Affects blood circulation, causing severe tissue and organ damage.
• Certain proteins prevent blood coagulation by preferentially binding to prothrombin, cleaving it into meizothrombin, which cannot be used along the typical clotting pathway
• Leads to catastrophic internal bleeding and hemmorhage, which in turn leads to shock when too much blood has left the circulatory system
• Reversed with antivenom
• Elapid - typically neurotoxic
• How and why
• Discuss neurochemistry of neurotoxins, why toxin binds to receptors
• Go in detail with one example - Inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)
• LD50 of 0.025 mg/kg in mice, 0.01 mg/kg in bovine serum
• Venom primarily kills through neurotoxins
• Presynaptic - paradoxin
• Blocks release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter responsible for muscle contraction
• Depolarizes the neuron, preventing the firing of action potentials
• One of the most potent, if not most potent, presynaptic neurotoxins known to man, but still largely unknown in function
• Believed to fuse ACh-containing vesicles to the presynaptic membrane, and prevent recycling of already-used vesicles
• Affects the permeability of the phospholipid membrane through altering structure as it binds to the surface.
• Postsynaptic - oxylepitoxin 1, alpha oxytoxin 1, alpha-scutoxin 1
• Bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in muscles antagonistically, causing inhibition of the receptor
• Prevent the reception of a signal to move
• Two types of receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic
• Nicotinic in central nervous system, muscarinic in peripheral nervous system and associated with autonomous nervous system and organs
• Only treatment is to use a mechanical ventilator and administer carbachol

Segment 3: Personal Connections* I have always been interested in snakes, especially

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0028390807000056

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17313963/

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "elapid". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Jun. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/animal/elapid . Accessed 24 May 2023.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "viper". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Apr. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/animal/viper-snake . Accessed 24 May 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echis_carinatus#Venom

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16879898/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC310718/#:~:text=These%20potent%20toxins%20bind%20specifically,blocking%20the%20excitation%20of%20muscles.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/866568/

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of AlchemyEpisode #13Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Cameron Scott/Anish Ponnam and we are your hosts for episode #19, The Chemistry of Alchemy. Today we will be discussingthe chemical origins of one of the most famous myths of all time.

Segment 1: Introduction to AlchemyWhat is the legend of the alchemists?:

- The history of the word alchemy comes from 332 BC when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and this led Greek concepts of Fire, Earth, Air, and Water to merge with the Egyptian science of the time. This merging of ideologies led way to concept of Khemia, which was the Greek word for Egypt. Finally, when the Arabs occupied Egypt in the 7th century, they decided to add the prefix “al-” to the word “Khemia” and this led to Alkhemia being made and is now believed to be the origin of the word Alchemy.

- Although alchemy was thought to be originated in Egypt, China also developed their own method of alchemy through the use of minerals and plants which was thought to prolong life and also the use of exercise techniques, such as Qigong, to manipulate the chi or life force of the body.

- India also developed their own version of alchemy which was very similar to that of China’s in which they wanted to use it to prolong life by purifying the body. Due to their curiosity with Alchemy, the indians were able to invent steel which is used in everyday construction as the framework of buildings.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind AlchemyWhen lead acetate and potassium iodide are mixed in solution, a precipitate of lead iodide is formed.

Explain how lead acetate was available during the alchemy times

• Produced by first burning elemental lead (creating lead oxide), then boiling it in acetic acid. In other words, vinegar.
• It has been documented that the romans used lead acetate as a sweetner, and the remains of those who lived during that time period, even Pope Clement II, have been found to indicate death by lead acetate poisoning.

Explain how Potassium iodide was available in the alchemy times

• KI has a high natural source in kelp, which draws in high concentrations of iodine from seawater during its photosynthesis process.
• KI can be extracted from seaweed by singeing it down to ash, then filtering the ash with distilled water to separate it from charcoal particles
• Mediterranean societies have been documented using seaweed for food and medical production
• It is plausible that an alchemist was able to derive KI from seaweed

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsPretty much its cool as hell and the solution you get from the experiment is beautiful.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://www.livescience.com/39314-alchemy.html

https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html#:~:text=Alchemy%20was%20born%20in%20ancient,and%20a%20goal%20of%20immortality. - Brief History of Alchemy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate

Testing A Possible Origin To Alchemy: The Golden Rain Experiment

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes Episode # 4Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Olivia, and I am your host for episode 4 called The Chemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes. Today, I will be discussingwhat acids are within a grape and how cotton candy grapes are made.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cotton Candy GrapesCotton Candy grapes are a variation of green grapes whose flavor is compared to the carnival fluffy, sweet confection cotton candy.

The process of turning a regular grocery store grape into a cotton candy grape is called hybridization. The common belief among people is that grapes are produced by injecting artificial flavoring; however, the cotton candy taste is through plant breeding. Hybridization happens between two different grape species; a type of Concord-like grape (like grapes used in Welch's jams, jellies, and juices) and a variety of Vinis vi nif er uh, an everyday grape found at grocery stores across the country.

A Horticulturist is responsible for this process. Horticulturists are specialists with training in plant production and development who monitor and enhance the growth of high-quality food plants, decorative plants, and medicinal herbs.

These medium-sized, oval, or oblong grapes are seasonal fruit. They are also lacking seeds by default. We'll cover everything that makes people wonder about the odd characteristics of these grapes, including their structure and sugar content.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind GrapesFirst, let's discuss what a grape really is. Grapes are made up of 70-80% water and are made up of acids which include tartaric, malic, and citric acid. Green grapes are more acidic (pH: 2.4). Red grapes (5.5-7) can be neutral. Acids contribute to overall acidity, giving a refreshing and tangy taste.

But what is an acid? An acid is created when substances dissolved in water increase the H+ ions in the solution. Donation of protons by acids (bronsted-Lowry) pH: range 0-14. Acids are less than 7 on a pH scale, and this is determined by H+ concentration. They also have different elements, such as their corrosive nature (ex rocks) and ability to conduct electricity (can conduct when dissolved in H2O). The H acts as a proton donor lowering pH. Acid-Base reactions (react with alkaline substances products are salts and water) (neutralization). There 7 strong acids, and these completely dissociate in H2O, while weak acids only partially dissociate (lower concentration of H+)

Grapes have a pH value that ranges from 1.9 to 4, which makes them an acidic fruit. These acids are at their highest concentration when the grapes are unripe, and acid content decreases as they mature. One of the acids in grapes, malic acid, has an ionizable hydrogen on each end of the molecule. This H dissociates and attaches to water molecules, making H3O+ which the tongue then detects as a sour taste.

Malic acid has 2 ionizable H’s, but why do only those hydrogens break off? First off, the dissociation of H in malic acid or any acid depends on acid strength. A diprotic acid (2 acidic H atoms) can dissociate in aq solution. Because this is a weak acid, and weak acids only partially dissociate, lowering the concentration. Both hydrogens have 2 different Ka values; Ka1 is larger than Ka2, so first, H dissociates faster than other.

In 2011, cotton candy grapes were first introduced to grocery stores. Vitis vinifera, sugars, and esters are responsible for giving their sweet flavor. Glucose and fructose are the main sugar compounds in the juice of grapes. At a ripening stage, the ratio of glucose to fructose is about 1:1; in overripe grapes, the concentration of fructose is greater than that of glucose.

Esters are mainly responsible for the flavoring of cotton candy grapes. An ester is a compound derived from an acid (ethyl acetate) which can be organic or inorganic. H or OH is replaced by R (organyl group), which represents any carbon or carbon chunk. Organic compounds are formed by the reaction between alcohol and acid, contributing to their flavor. Common esters in cotton candy grapes include ethyl butyrate (fruity aromma-reminscent of pineapple) and Ethyl hexanoate- sweet notes. During the ripening process, enzymes that are present in the fruit catalyze the formation of esters through alcohol molecules (naturally present). The presence of specific esters in cotton candy grapes can vary due to genetic factors, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices. Higher levels of esters in different cotton candy flavors are due to sugars and acids, which contribute to the overall taste.

Ethyl butyrate, C6H12O2, is bonded together through covalent bonding.

Pi bonds- overlap atomic orbitals, C double bond O 1 pi, 1 sigma, Sp2 hybridized orbital of O2, Unhybridized p orbital overlaps making pi bonds causing reactivity and chemical properties, allows rotation around sigma bond and behavior

Sigma bonds → C, H, O A sigma (σ) bond is a type of covalent chemical bond formed by overlapping atomic orbitals along the axis connecting the nuclei of two atoms. It is the strongest type of covalent bond and is commonly found in single bonds between atoms.

multiple bonds can be formed between atoms, such as double or triple bonds. These involve the formation of at least one sigma bond and other pi (π) bonds, which result from the parallel overlap of p orbitals. Sigma bonds are always formed first before the pi bonds.

C-c

C-H

C-O (double bonds) →Allow atoms to share electrons, makes covalent bonds

C chain is tetrahedral

C chain on the end is tetrahedral

O-C double bonds, polar. O is negative C is positive

The overall molecule is nonpolar

C-H bonds, C-C bonds, C-O, bonds, O-H bonds

Electrons around O (4)

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsMy favorite fruit is grapes, and I wanted to know more about the chemistry behind them. I also thought cotton candy grapes were manufactured and injected with flavoring, so I wanted to know how they were made.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35630586/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Candy_grapes

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/

https://www.mic.com/life/how-are-cotton-candy-grapes-made-the-mad-science-behind-the-curiously-delicious-designer-fruit-18743823

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/malic_acid

https://www.google.com/search?q=what+are+cotton+candy+grapes&rlz=1CASFKO_enUS944US947&oq=what+are+cotton+candy&aqs=chrome.0.0i512j69i57j0i512l8.4730j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&safe=strict

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of CosmeticsEpisode #14Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sydney Yeh and my name is Hannah Chu and we are your hosts for episode 12 called Chemistry of Cosmetics. Today we will be discussingthe chemistry of cosmetics.

Segment 1: Introduction to CosmeticsWhat are cosmetics?

(General cosmetics)

There are thousands of different cosmetic products on the market, all with different combinations of ingredients. In the United States alone, there are approximately 12,500 unique chemical ingredients approved for use in personal care products. A typical product could contain anything from 15–50 ingredients. Considering the average woman uses between 9 and 15 personal care products per day, researchers have estimated that, when combined with the addition of perfumes, women place around 515 individual chemicals on their skin each day through cosmetic use.

(History of cosmetics)

Let’s take it back to cosmetics in the olden times. Cosmetics were first seen in ancient Egypt, where makeup served as a marker of wealth believed to appeal to the gods. The elaborate eyeliner characteristic of Egyptian art appeared on men and women as early as 4000 BCE. Kohl, rouge, white powders to lighten skin tone, and malachite eye shadow (the green color that represented the gods Horus and Re) were all in popular use. By 3000 B.C men and women in China had begun to stain their fingernails with colors according to their social class, while Greek women used poisonous lead carbonate to achieve a pale complexion.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cosmetics(pigments/color)

A huge range of substances are used to create many appealing colors found in makeup. Mineral ingredients include iron oxide, mica flakes, manganese, chromium oxide, and coal tar. Natural colors can come from plants, such as beet powder.

Cosmetic pigments are broken up into two types, organic and inorganic.

Inorganic pigments consist of iron oxides, chromium dioxides, ultramarines, manganese violet, white pigments, and pearlescent effects. They are used for their opaque color coverage, making them particularly suitable in face and eye makeup. They are usually duller in appearance than organic pigments. The transition metals in inorganic pigments form colorful ions, complexes, and compounds. This is due to the unfilled d orbitals these elements have. When transition metal ions form complexes and compounds with other molecules, they become colored. They bond to one or more neutral or negatively charged nonmetals, also known as ligands (li gens), changing the shape of d orbitals. Unabsorbed wavelengths of light pass through a complex and some light is also reflected back from a molecule. The combination of absorption, reflection, and transmission results in the apparent colors of the complexes.

(mica)

Shimmering effects can be created by coating mica with titanium dioxide and iron oxides to vary the refractive index observed in the finished product. Cosmetic mica typically comes from muscovite, also known as white mica. It naturally forms in flaky sheets, which are crushed into fine powders. The tiny particles in the powders refract (bend) light, which creates the shimmering effect common in many cosmetics. Various thicknesses of titanium dioxide are used to vary the color effects that are created through the different refractive angles that are created. These refractive angles can also manipulate the visual effects of the finished products. Additionally, iron oxides combined with the titanium dioxide coating can create a two-tone or luster effect. A variety of metallic and bright colors can be created using the pearlescent coating effect.

(Emulsions)

• Emulsions are also common in the chemistry of cosmetics. The majority of creams and lotions are emulsions. An emulsion can be defined simply as two immiscible fluids where one liquid is dispersed as fine droplets in the other. Typically, creating a lotion or cream takes three phases: a water phase, an oil phase, and a finishing phase that occurs after your emulsion has cooled.
• But, oil and water don’t mix. This is because water is a polar molecule – its structure means that is has a positive charge one end and a negative charge the other end. Water molecules stick together because the positive end of one water molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. However, the structure of an oil molecule is non polar. Its charge is evenly balanced rather than having one positive and one negative end. This means oil molecules are more attracted to other oil molecules than water molecules, and water molecules are more attracted to each other than oil, so the two never mix.
• Since water and oil do not mix but stay separated, an additional agent (emulsifier) is necessary to form a homogenous mixture keeping water and oil together. Without an emulsifier, you can mix the water and oil together but as soon as you stop, they fall out and separate back to oil floating on water.
• In cosmetic chemistry, we use ’emulsions’ to blend two immiscible (unblendable) liquids together. An emulsifier stabilizes an emulsion by increasing its kinetic stability. Emulsifiers work because their molecules have two parts: one part is attracted to water and one part is attracted to oil. There are two types of emulsions: Oil in Water and Water in Oil. An oil in water emulsion is composed of an oil phase dispersed in an aqueous one. It is known as a direct emulsion. Stabilization of O/W emulsion is often performed with hydrophilic-hydrophobic particles. The hydrophilic end of the emulsifier molecule has an affinity for water, and the hydrophobic end is drawn to the fat/oil. By vigorously mixing the emulsifier with the water and oil, it creates a stable emulsion. And then the water in oil emulsion is composed of an aqueous phase dispersed in the oil phase.

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWe are one of the many women that wear makeup and use cosmetics, as we have many chemical ingredients on our bodies right now! I have about 273 chemicals (Sydney) in my body, and I have 219 chemicals (Hannah) in me. It is important for us to be cautious about what ingredients we put in our bodies, along with the types of chemicals and how they could affect us. In addition, it is important to know how some of the products we put on our faces are made.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:* https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/chemistry-cosmetics * https://www.vinmec.com/en/news/health-news/beauty/what-are-the-harmful-effects-of-lead-in-cosmetics/#:~:text=So%20why%20is%20there%20lead,is%20applied%20to%20most%20cosmetics.&text=In%20December%202016%2C%20the%20FDA,lipsticks%20and%20other%20cosmetic%20products.’ * http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Co-Di/Cosmetic-Chemistry.html * https://www.britannica.com/story/why-did-we-start-wearing-makeup#:~:text=To%20understand%20the%20origin%20of,as%20early%20as%204000%20BCE. * https://cosmetics.specialchem.com/selection-guide/color-selection-basics#:~:text=Inorganic%20pigments%20consist%20of%20iron,in%20appearance%20than%20organic%20pigments. * https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559084/ * https://www.science-sparks.com/why-dont-oil-and-water-mix/#:~:text=The%20structure%20of%20an%20oil,so%20the%20two%20never%20mix. * https://sciencenotes.org/transition-metal-ion-colors/

Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsYou thought gluten made you bloated????Episode #12 (Say it very quickly) Warning: There are gruesome topics mentioned in this podcast, so feelings of disgust is natural. This podcast is not meant to joke about human decomposition, but to explain the process in a light-hearted manner. We hope this podcast is educational and that you enjoy.

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Katie Laitusis and I’m Angela Choi and we are your hosts for episode number 12 called You thought gluten made you bloated???? Today we will be discussingHuman Decomposition… yuck

Segment 1: Introduction to Human DecompositionThere are 5 stages of human decomposition: the fresh stage (aka autolysis), the bloat stage, active decay, advanced decay, and the dry or skeletonized stage. In this episode we will be focusing on our personal favorites: the bloat stage and advanced decay stage. To start, during the bloat stage the body may double in size, due to the gases, which is why it has a bloated look. During the advanced decay stage, gut bacteria digests intestines and then surrounding tissues, and cartilage. Hair, bones, and ligaments are the only parts of the body that are left over. Insects that chew are attracted to the body during advanced decay like dogs to a bone.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Human DecompositionAnyways, lets lighten the mood with a quick joke before we get into the chemistry. What do you do with a dead chemist? I don’t know, what? You Barium. HAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAHAHAHHAHAH

We will now be talking about the chemistry behind these stages. In the bloating stage, we will talk about gas pressure and how it affects people during decomposition. During bloating, gasses build up and fluids are pushed outside of natural body openings. The bloat phase begins about 3-5 days after death and this occurs when bacteria shifts from aerobic to anaerobic bacteria, which is when they don’t require oxygen. The bacteria will feed on the body tissues, causing the sugars to ferment them to produce gaseous by-products… probably not the type of passing gas your familiar with. So then what type of gasses are we talking about? Some of the gases produced include methane, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. What else happens during the this stage?During bloating, this stage also will start to attract flies that lay eggs and produce maggots, which will feed on the dead tissue. As more bacteria accumulates, the abdomen and other body parts will grow in size. Anaerobic bacteria converts hemoglobin molecules, which once carried oxygen around the body, into sulfhemoglobin. The presence of this molecule in settled blood gives skin the marbled, greenish-black appearance characteristic of a body undergoing active decomposition. Ewwww… uhhh Cool? And, even better, as the gas pressure continues to build up inside the body, it causes blisters to appear all over the skin surface… and sometimes the abdomen will burst from the pressure. I’m never going to an open casket funeral then. So tell me about the advanced decay stage.

In the fourth stage, which is advanced decay, this process may start about 25-50 days after death. In advanced decay, we will talk about the effect that temperature has on the speed of reactions. During decomposition, the speed of the chemical reactions involved doubles with every 10°C rise in temperature, because when particles are heated, they move faster within the system, creating more collisions, and an increase in the rate of the reaction. So a cadaver will reach the advanced stage after 16 days or 1.14 fortnights at an average daily temperature of 25°C. However it will take 80 days to reach this stage at an average daily temperature of 5°C. Good thing I don’t live in the desert. The higher the temperatures, the more bacteria in the body will produce gas at a faster rate. This will create more openings in the skin for flies to lay their eggs. A decomposing human body in the earth will eventually release approximately 32g of nitrogen, 10g of phosphorus, 4g of potassium, and 1g of magnesium for every kilogram of dry body mass. Wow, that's a lot of gas! Or is it? How much is a gram of gas? Anyways, that must have some effects on the area… right? Dead bodies can impact the environment, because of chemicals leaking into the soil, which can actchually make it more fertile. Who knew decaying corpses were the secret to solving climate change? Not me :D

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsNow its time to get personal…We have always been interested in forensics from watching TV shows like Criminal Minds, and took the Forensic Science course during high school. In this course we went over how people look during death such as rigor mortis, but never went over different stages of decomposition, and felt interested in this topic. You also never know when you might stumble across a dead body and want to know why it looks so bloated… and juicy ;)

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2015/may/05/life-after-death#:~:text=Decomposition%20begins%20several%20minutes%20after,begin%20to%20 accumulate%20 inside%20the m

https://bioteamaz.com/phoenix-heat-speeds-up-the-decomposition-process/#:~:text=Bodies%20decompose%20fastest%20in%20hot,occur%20in%20a%20shorter%20timeline.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3377612/

https://alabamabioclean.com/the-5-stages-of-human-decomposition/#:~:text=The%20five%20stages%20of%20human,at%20which%20a%20body%20decomposes

Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired

Bodies (cover) by @Angela Choi and Katie Laitusis

Turn It Down For What (cover) @Angela Choi and Katie Laitusis

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Rockets and Space CraftsEpisode #15 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Vanessa and I am your host for episode #15 called Chemistry of Rockets and Space crafts. Today I will be discussinghow rockets are launched into space and how people are able to survive in the vessels. Specifically, how chemistry helps make space travel possible.

Segment 1: Introduction to Rockets and Space CraftsWhat is a rocket?

First off I’m going to talk about what a rocket actually is. Usually when you think of a rocket, you probably think of a tall, thin, round vehicle. However, a rocket isn’t just the traditional spacecraft but it can also be the engine and any vehicle that uses the engine

When were rockets invented?

• The first “rockets” were created in China in the 1200s. They used solid fuel and were used as fireworks. They were also used by armies. Overtime, rockets evolved and became bigger. Rocket production really picked up during the cold war, where in 1957 the Soviet’s Sputnik was launched. In 1969, the United States sent the first men to the moon with the Saturn V rocket
• How rockets and spacecraft work have changed over time, especially with the types of engines used and how the engines work.

Shuttles and space capsules (apollo missions)

How do the engines work?

• The engines burn fuel, which turns into hot gas which is then pushed out the back by the engine. The gas causes the rocket to propel upwards and move forwards
• A rocket engine is different from a jet engine because it doesn't need air. It has everything it needs, allowing it to work in space.
• There are two types of engines:
• Liquid fuels (used in the space shuttles and Russian Soyuz)
• First liquid fuel rocket which is used today was invented by Robert H Goddard
• Solid fuels (on the side of the space shuttles)

Rockets/Space Crafts Today:

• ISS (International Space Station)
• NASA, Russia’s Roscosmos, Japan’s JAXA, Europe’s ESA, and Canada’s CSA
• To conduct research and study space
• Artemis missions
• Return to the moon, long term presence on the moon, to study and better understand the lunar surface
• Space X
• Aims to help in the mission to colonize mars and participate in space travel and exploration

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rockets and Space CraftsWhat makes NASA rockets fly:

Combustion Reactions:

• Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The combustion reactions are what allow the rockets to launch and then fly.
• A combustion reaction results from burning something. It releases energy which is what allows the rockets to move. The fuel is what burns when it is mixed with an oxidizer creating a propellant.
• RS-25 main engines are liquid engines:
• Liquid hydrogen is the fuel
• Liquid oxygen is the oxidizer
• The boosters use aluminum as fuel with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer and is mixed with a binder creating a homogeneous solid propellant.
• Hydrogen: the main fuel is the lightest element as exists normally as a gas
• Low density meaning a little takes up a lot of space
• A really large tank would be needed for a large combustion reaction, which isn’t aerodynamically suitable
• Therefore, by turning hydrogen into a liquid it makes it denser meaning it takes up less space. Hydrogen is cooled to a temp of -432 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Oxygen:
• Oxygen is denser than hydrogen but also needs to be compressed into a liquid in order to fit into the smaller lighter tank so it is cooled to -297 degrees Fahrenheit
• LH2 and LOX
• Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
• 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + Energy
• Water
• Releases a lot of energy in the form of steam
• The hydrogen-oxygen reaction generates heat which causes the water vapor to expand and exit the nozzles at speeds of 10000 miles per hour. The fast moving stream allows the rocket to propel upwards.
• talk about not knowing it was steam

Living long-term in space:

• The ISS uses a method to remove CO2 from the air and allow astronauts to breath by using a sorbent, LiOH
• The exothermic reaction of LiOH with CO2 creates lithium carbonate (Li2CO3)(s) and water. LiOH has a high absorption capacity for CO2 and produces a small amount of heat. It is also a very strong base.
• This will also be used in future missions to Mars as well as on other long term missions that require people to be able to breath without their suits on.
• CO2 and O2
• 2LiOH(s) + CO2 (g) → Li2CO3(s) + H2O (g)

• It's an acid-base reaction. Scrubbers, which are expandable filters, containing lithium hydroxide, capture carbon dioxide. This removes carbon dioxide in the air, allowing astronauts to breathe. (originally)

• For long term missions, this isn't effective so scrubbers with minerals called zeolites are instead used. They capture the CO2 and release it into space, allowing it to be reused for extended periods.

• Now, scientists discovered a way to turn carbon dioxide into water.

Carbon dioxide reduction system →meanign the number of electrons associated with the atom increase. `

1. Combines CO2 with hydrogen gas to form water and methane. The methane gas is vented into space and the water is split into breathable oxygen and hydrogen gas using hydrolysis. The hydrogen gas is then used to make more water.

Segment 3: Personal Connections* Space has always been something that has fascinated me and I grew up obsessed with everything space and NASA related. I know a lot about the planets and stars, but not a lot about the rockets and vessels that actually allow us to get data on astronomical bodies. So I wanted to research this topic to learn how exactly rockets work on a chemistry level. * Air and Space museum in DC * NASA Houston * NASA Cape Canaveral/Kennedy Space Center * How cool it is the affect chemistry has on space

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/2016/04/15/weve-got-rocket-chemistry-part-1/

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/tag/chemical-reactions/

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-rocket-k4.html

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach/activity/the-air-up-there-making-space-breathable/#:~:text=And%20chemistry%20plays%20an%20important,called%20lithium%20hydroxide%20(LiOH).

https://tech.hindustantimes.com/tech/news/nasa-artemis-i-mission-not-just-rocket-science-hidden-chemistry-powers-moon-launches-and-sustains-life-in-space-71662286082698.html

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsQuantum ChemistryEpisode #7 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Owen Mahan and I am your host for episode #7 called Quantum Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the effects of quantum mechanics lead to chemistry.

Segment 1: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics* Quantum mechanics is the mechanism behind the world on the smallest scale * QM acts on the smallest scale, classical mechanics on our scale, relativity on a large scale * Quantum comes from the fact that things are quantized * Energy, charge, etc can only have certain integer multiples of quantities * Schrodinger equation (or the wave function) means the values of quantum systems are only probabilistic * Heisenberg uncertainty principle means you can’t know everything about a system * Pauli exclusion principle says that multiple of the same fermion can’t exist at the same time * Fermions have ½ integer spin (electrons, quarks, nucleons by extension, etc) while bosons have whole integer spin (photons, gluons, etc)

Segment 2: Quantum Effects on Chemistry* Bonding/Potential Energy * All chemical interactions are based on quantum mechanics * Bonding occurs because of low potential energy states and electron clouds form because of that * Metallic bonding was used to discover QM via photoelectric effect (Einstein) * A solution to the schrodinger equation using Born-Oppenheimer methods is what gives the energy vs nuclear distance graph (as seen on the AP exam) * Overlapping is the process by which electron clouds enter a newly favorable state as atoms bond * Resonance structures are superpositions of electrons within molecules which create multiple simultaneous overlapping cloud structures * Orbitals occur because of spin mechanics as ½ spin particles cannot be indistinguishable, so a max of two electrons (½ and -½ spin respectively) can occupy an orbital * Helium superfluid occurs because He-4 atoms have 0 combined spin so can fall into the same states * Neutron stars (the densest things in the universe) occur because the pressure of fermions not wanting to occupy the same state barely overcomes the gravitational pressure * Entropy - 34 min * Entropy can be thought of as an effect of quantum mechanics * The potential number of states determines the entropy of a system * A system seemingly in perfect order at a moment in time can still have the same entropy as a “disordered” permutation of the same system * Gas mixtures can at one point be perfectly separated but if it is not locked into that state it has the same entropy as any mixed state of the same system * It is the information “hidden” by the system, called Von Neumann entropy * Interesting applications include black holes, as information is seemingly lost * Resolved by the idea that entropy is hidden information on the surface area of the black hole which is released via Hawking radiation

Segment 3: Personal Connections* Fundamental physics is the most important branch of science to pushing technology forward * Relates to literally all other fields of science * I find it very interesting because there is so much depth you can go into * Explains questions about other fields * Quantum chemistry is especially interesting because being able to understand what creates chemical phenomena allows for a better understanding of the phenomena themselves

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/photoelectric-effect

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/02._Fundamental_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mechanics/Heisenberg's_Uncertainty_Principle

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of SodaEpisode #8 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Neha and Nikhil and we are your hosts for episode #8 called Chemistry of Soda. Today we will be discussingbasically that: the chemistry involved in soda.

Segment 1: Introduction to Soda* Soda is a fizzy beverage that people love to drink, ourselves included * There are many different kinds of soda. To name a couple: * Coke * Fanta * Root beer * Pepsi * And more * You can find it at any local grocery store * It is an enjoyable drink due to its carbonation and the sting it has on your tongue, which we will go into depth about shortly

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind SodaTopic 1: Equilibrium

• First, let’s talk about the fizz in soda
• Citric acid reacts with the carbonate in bicarbonate of soda to form carbon dioxide gas
• These bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are what make your drink fizzy
• These molecules of carbon dioxide are thoroughly mixed and dissolved into the water in the soda pop
• This is known as carbonation
• Regarding carbonation, it is important to note:
• Carbon dioxide doesn’t easily dissolve in water under everyday conditions
• Manufacturers have to increase the pressure in the can and keep it at a low temperature so water molecules can trap lots of carbon dioxide molecules
• They also use pressure to put more gas in water than it could normally hold at that temperature
• Therefore, if the soda can warms up a bit or the can is shaken, pressure goes up and extra gas is ready to come up
• So opening the can releases pressure, and soda shoots out
• This is why the can is sealed so that it is airtight. That way, the inside of the can maintains enough pressure to prevent extra carbon dioxide molecules from escaping
• Talking about the can being sealed airtight, inside the can, carbon dioxide exists in two forms: some dissolves in water and some sits in gas form between the top of the can and the liquid
• When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, water and gaseous carbon dioxide react to form a dilute solution of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
• This reaction is reversible
• When the can of soda is sealed, the high pressure inside the can forces the chemical reaction to the right (forward reaction)
• This forward reaction continues until equilibrium is reached
• However, once you open can, pressure is released and the reaction shifts to the left (so reverse reaction occurs)
• In the reverse reaction, water and carbon dioxide are formed
• This is because the gaseous carbon dioxide at the top of the can escapes when you open the can
• The can is no longer under pressure if it is open, so dissolved carbon dioxide starts coming out of the solution (reverse reaction)
• Bubbles form which release the carbon dioxide into the air
• The escaping carbon dioxide lowers the concentration of carbon dioxide in the drink, so carbonic acid turns back to carbon dioxide and water which results in a new eqm
• Now that we’re on the topic of bubbles that release carbon dioxide, let's talk about the fizz of soda going away with time
• I think it’s known to most people, excluding Nikhil, that fizzy soda tastes better than flat soda
• In a fizzy drink, dilute carbonic acid creates a slight burning sensation on your tongue, which is enjoyable to some
• This doesn’t happen with a flat drink though
• Let’s start with how the drink becomes flat
• If you open a soda can or bottle, the carbon dioxide begins to come out of the soda and into the air
• Eventually, enough carbon dioxide will come out and the soda will become flat
• When soda is flat, carbon dioxide continually escapes which is why there is no stinging sensation when soda is flat
• Let’s recall the reaction from earlier where water and carbon dioxide react to form carbonic acid
• As carbon dioxide bubbles away from liquid, the reactants and products move again towards equilibrium which causes the reverse reaction to take over since carbon dioxide, a reactant, is going away so the reaction proceeds in that direction to create more of it
• This causes carbonic acid concentration to get lower and lower
• Therefore, as the amount of carbonic acid in the beverage goes down, so does the soda’s ability to bring about the tingling sensation on your tongue

Topic 2: Acidity/pH

• Now that we’ve talked about carbonic acid, let’s talk about other acids in soda
• Phosphoric acid and citric acid are added as preservatives and flavor enhancers
• Citric acid specifically can bind to calcium and leach it out of teeth, which is dangerous
• Every soda on the market has a pH below 4, most between 2.5 to 3.5
• The acidic pH of soda makes it dangerous for teeth
• This is because acid is an instrumental part of the cavity process
• The acidic pH of soda gives bacteria even more power to cause cavities by lowering the pH in the mouth and weakening enamel,
• Eventually, the enamel gets weak to the point where it cannot fight the acid attacks of bacteria well
• Sugar in soda also feeds bacteria, which produce acid that dissolves enamel
• These sugars in soda include a mixture of a sugar called glucose and another called fructose
• These wo sugars attach to each other to make another sugar called sucrose
• Anyway, back to the acidity of soda
• The acidity of soda and absorption of carbon dioxide both can also cause a significant decrease in blood pH
• This lower blood pH can possibly be associated with many diseases (including incurable cancer) because the body needs an alkaline environment for good health

Segment 3: Personal Connections* Soda is one of my favorite drinks (in my top 3) * So we thought it would be cool to take a dive into the chemistry behind soda, especially with the fizz since Neha likes fizzy soda but Nikhil does not * It was interesting to find out how the fizz works and why it fades away as time goes on * We really just chose it because it was a fun topic and soda is still something we drink weekly so it kind of is still a big part of our lives, even if it isn’t in a significant way

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://www.york.ac.uk/res/sots/activities/itsagas.htm#:~:text=The%20citric%20acid%20reacts%20with,what%20make%20your%20drink%20fizzy.

https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/secret-science-stuff/soda-pop.html

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/chemistry-pop

http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/Chemistry_of_Soft_Drinks_ijariie11653.pdf

https://www.prodentcare.com/blog/why-soda-is-terrible-for-your-teeth#:~:text=What%20makes%20soda%20acidic%3F,as%20preservatives%20and%20flavor%20enhancers.

https://www.premierdentalohio.com/blog/effects-of-drinking-pop-soda-on-dental-health#:~:text=Acidic%20pH,battery%20acid%20is%20about%201.0.

https://www.medindia.net/patients/lifestyleandwellness/colas-are-bad-for-health-in-the-long-run.htm#:~:text=Carbon%20dioxide%20is%20the%20end,the%20blood%20making%20it%20acidic.

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of WineEpisode #9 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Erin Goldsmith and Gianluca Procaccini, and we are your hosts for episode 9 of Chemistry Connections. Today we will be discussingthe chemistry of red wine.

Segment 1: Introduction to Red Wine ProductionIn this episode, we will be covering the chemistry of red wine production. We will mainly be discussing the fermentation process that turns the grapes into wine, after the harvesting process, prior to bottling the wine.

To start, we’ll define some key terms:

Ethanol is the form of alcohol that is in wine. Typically in a range anywhere between 7-15 percent.

Tannic acid aka tannins are a naturally occurring molecule which cause a dry feeling in your mouth and are bitter when ingested. Tannins can be extracted from skins, seeds, bark, and plant stems.

Tartaric acid is the one of the components in wine that controls the overall acidity. Too much can cause an overly tart, sharp wine; while too little can cause a wine that is flat and bland.

Sulfites are the component of wine that act as a preservative and an agent that halts the fermentation process which can help protect the wine against potential oxidation or bacterial exposure which could occur at various stages of the winemaking process.

Malic acid is another acid found in grapes that is primarily responsible for sour flavors, its concentration decreases as a grape ripens.

Also, we’ll discuss the origins of wine. Wine was first created in Georgia in 6000 BCE by accident. When stored grapes ended up getting fermented by naturally occuring yeast. After this, yeast became domesticated and spread throughout the Caucuses and then moved into Europe.

Segment 2: Personal ConnectionsErin was interested in researching the chemistry of wine after watching Star Trek Picard. In the first season, Captain Jean-Luc Picard has retired to the French countryside, and now makes wine. The quality of Picard’s wine becomes a running joke in later seasons.

Gianluca is interested in researching winemaking because of the 100 Days winemaking simulator video game.

Wine production is an important part of many lives. The wine industry spans multiple countries, continents, and cultures. It is a beverage that has historically brought people together, and has played a vital role in community building across many centuries and places. Wine, along with other forms of alcohol, was used as a main source of water before water purification methods were perfected. It has historical significance that can not be defined but has provided the lifeblood for many businesses, religious ceremonies, and social gatherings.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Red Wine ProductionWe will be discussing the process behind wine production which include the following steps.

• Crushing
• Primary Fermentation
• Cold Stabilization
• Secondary/Malolactic Fermentation

The purpose of this process is to release the juice from the grapes, and use the sugar in the fruit to produce the alcohol found in wine. The fermentation process is initiated by certain types of yeast, which is controlled in steps like primary fermentation, secondary/malolactic fermentation. The levels of fermentation can affect the taste and alcohol level of the final product.

2 AP Chemistry topics discussed in this episode:

• When grapes begin the fermentation process, many acids are released in the form of tannic, malic, and tartaric acids. These acids help contribute to the different aspects of red wine such as bitterness, sourness and acidity respectively.
• Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substances through the action of enzymes. Yeast helps convert the sugar in grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide during the fermentation process of winemaking

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:* https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/wine-chemistry * https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/chemistry-wine-part-1#:~:text=The%20answer%20is%20simple%E2%80%94chemistry,compounds%2C%20pigment%20compounds%20and%20tannins * https://www.terravenos.com/trellis/acid-wine * https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/chemistry-wine-part-2-fermentation * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking * https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-wine-what-are-tannins * https://www.extension.iastate.edu/wine/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/compositionofgrapes.pdf

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Breaking BadEpisode #10 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Nathan and Lucas and we are your hosts for episode #10 called The Chemistry of breaking bad. Today we will be discussing how Mr Walter White creates his signature blue meth.

Segment 1: Introduction to Breaking BadIn Breaking Bad there are many episodes where chemistry is incorporated into the show; I mean Walter himself is a chemistry teacher, but nevertheless, chemistry is what makes Breaking Bad, Breaking Bad. In this episode we are going to break down one of the most iconic propsin the show: the infamous blue crystals Walter cooks up

Breaking Bad is a popular tv show, in which the main character, Walter White, a High School Chemistry teacher, starts creating drugs and selling them to make cash after he is informed that he has cancer.

We are going to focus on how blue meth, methylamphetamine, is made and the psychological effects it has. Basically, this is a step-by-step guide on how to make meth. Jk jk, this is just a step-by-step guide, speculating how meth was made in the show

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blue MethThroughout the story, two different methods of synthesis are used:

The first method Walter uses is pseudoephedrine, little Sud. Walter obtains little sud from the over-the-counter drug Sudafed

By combining red phosphorus—gathered from matchbox strike strips—and iodine, a person can create a strong acid removing the little cluster of hydrogen and oxygen that separates Sudafed from meth. Little suds molecular formula is C10H15NO, while the molecular formula of meth is C10H15N. So as you can see the molecular formula between these two are very close.

• Reference connection to bonding
• This relates to bonding because Methamphetamine, as well as pseudoephedrine, contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O) atoms, which are elements commonly involved in covalent bonding.
• Reduction is part of this reaction.
• We are familiar with reduction from Redox reactions
• Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms involved in the reaction between two chemicals.
• The pseudophedrine substance undergoes reduction and turns into N-methamphetamine..

The second method Walter uses is a synthesis method from Phenylacetone aka P2P.P2P has a similar shape to methamphetamine and Sudafed. It has a circular carbon loop called a phenyl ring, with a short carbon neck and a few chemical groups attached to it.

• It's like a "neck" because it is narrower and shorter compared to the other parts of the molecule.

To convert P2P into meth, you just need to modify the attached chemical groups. However, P2P is hard to get because the DEA knows that P2P is made to make meth. So, White synthesizes his own P2P based on methylamine, acetic acid, and phenylacetic acid.

Methylamine is a colorless gas with a strong scent, frequently used in pharmaceuticals

Acetic acid is similar to Methylamine, except it's a liquid, with a similar scent to vinegar. It is frequently used in pharmaceuticals and condiments

Phenylacetic acid tends to be used in fragrances. It is also found naturally in fruits.

• First: tube furnace
• A tube furnace is an electric heater thats used to conduct syntheses and purifications of compounds
• Next: reductive amination I love animation
• Oh no, anyways
• Amination is the process by which an amine group is introduced into an organic molecule
• Reductive amination is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde.
• Phenylacetic acid made by:
• First combining chlorine with acetone through alpha halogenation to get Alpha chloracetone
• Then combine benzene with Alpha clroacetone to make phenylacetic acid
• FYI: Alpha Chloroacetone is an extremely powerful lachrymator (irritates eyes and makes tears flow). It makes regular old 'tear gas', and if ANY of it gets away from you, you'll wish to God it hadn't. Handling that stuff in an 'informal' setting is almost a guarantee that you will have a problem that will advertise your presence to anyone nearby. When he said, "for educational purposes only" he meant it.
• Sorry to inform you, but even if you did ignore my warning and try to make meth with this method, you won’t get you blue meth

Segment 3: Personal Connections* We like watching breaking bad * We want to learn about more lab equipment used to synthesize substances * We like chemistry * We like meth * We think it's interesting, because we use it (allegedly) * Personal curiosity * Want to know how to make meth

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:​​https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/tv/a9386/breaking-bad-fact-vs-fiction-walter-whites-secret-formula-15826137/

https://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/5416791/The_Chemistry_of_Breaking_Bad/https://www.britannica.com/science/acetic-acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_furnace

Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of the Northern LightsEpisode #11 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Pollara and my name is Megan Meng and we are your host for episode #11 called The Chemistry of the Northern Lights. Today we will be discussingwhy the Northern Lights occur and the chemistry behind it.

Segment 1: Introduction to Northern LightsFor our segment we will be discussing the Northern lights. Scientifically referred to as Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights are a natural light phenomenon that appear across Earth's great sky. Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

There are many myths behind the aurora borealis. The Eksimo tribes believed that they could summon the aurora to speak with their dead relatives. Inuit tribes feared the lights and carried knives to protect themselves against the aurora. But one thing is for sure now, all the myths behind the lights are FALSE. The science behind the Aurora Borealis is the TRUTH.

We will cover the origins of solar wind which send charged particles towards the earth. Then we will explain how those charged particles create collisions in our atmosphere that lead to the Northern Lights phenomenon.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Northern LightsAlthough the Northern Lights seem too gigantic to comprehend, breaking each process down makes the Northern Lights seem more simple. There are charged particles, collisions, electron excitations, and light waves that all go into the creation of the beautiful Northern Lights.

• What is going on on the Sun?
• The Sun is made up of helium and hydrogen.
• The origin of solar reactions:

-Inside the sun, reactions are always happening. These reactions are called proton-proton fusion!!

Originating in the core of the sun, a lone hydrogen atom fuses with another hydrogen atom. These two protons usually break apart, but sometimes the hydrogen atoms stay fused. Once fused, a single proton transforms into a neutron because of its weaker nuclear force. A third proton then fuses with the proton-neutron pair, creating a helium atom and releasing gamma rays, or sunlight. Finally, two helium atoms collide, which causes two protons to be released and a heavier isotope of Helium.

The two protons then travel towards Earth’s atmosphere, colliding with atoms such as Oxygen and Nitrogen that make up Earth’s upper atmosphere.

• . What are solar winds?
• Storms on the sun cause solar winds
• The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles that flows out of the Sun in all directions. The strength of the solar wind varies depending on the activity on the surface of the Sun. The Earth is mostly protected from the solar wind by its strong magnetic field.
• So is that why Northern Lights only happen in the north and south pole?
• Yes, actually Earth's magnetic field steers the charged particles towards the poles. The shape of Earth's magnetic field creates two auroral ovals above the North and South Magnetic Poles. This is where the charged particles from solar winds tend to be attracted to.
• Solar charged molecules strike oxygen atoms and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere. When the molecules collide, the atoms light up because of the excitation of their electrons!!
• Electron excitation: What is it?
• When an atom’s electrons are in the lowest energy level, then that atom is in its ground state.
• If the electrons absorb energy, they excite and move to a higher energy level.

In the example of the Northern Lights, a charged particle collides with Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms in the atmosphere, exciting their electrons. Once the electron reaches a higher energy level, it loses energy and then falls back to its original energy level. When an electron moves back to its ground state, a photon is emitted with the amount of energy that is the difference between the two energy levels.

• If a photon with more energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 6 to energy level 1), a light color on the latter half of the spectrum will be shown, like purple or blue. But, if a photon with little energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 2 to energy level 1), a light color of red or orange will be shown.

COLORS! !!!!

Since the different atoms in the atmosphere have different electron configurations, they will release different amounts of energy when excited.

• Different colors:

• Oxygen: Green and brownish-red colored lights.

• Nitrogen: Blue and red colored lights.

• Other Gasses: Helium and hydrogen emit purple and blue colored lights. There are also other gasses that get excited and emit light in the atmosphere. However, their wavelengths may not fall in the visible electromagnetic spectrum.

• Other planets have different auroras This is because they have different atmospheres.

• Jupiter’s aurora is blue, and Saturn’s is purple and red.
• Auroras are possible on any planet or moon where energetic particles are present in the atmosphere.

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsCrazily enough the northern lights are almost always present, day and night. 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year. These lights are beautiful natural phenomena and give us a sense for how vast and interconnected our galaxy is. The interaction between the atmosphere and the small particles that make it create something so huge that we as puny humans can see it from Earth’s surface with the naked eye.

I would love to see the Northern Lights in my lifetime. They seem so peaceful, yet energetic. Do I believe in any of the old myths about the aurora? No. Do I still think the aurora has an interesting connection to the world we live in? Yes, completely. Although for the past 5 or so minutes we’ve broken down the Northern Lights to only a couple, microscopic reactions, the combination of those reactions give us an amazing sight to be seen. Who wouldn’t want to see the Northern Lights?

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:https://www.worldofchemicals.com/675/chemistry-articles/chemistry-of-northern-lights.html

https://atoptics.co.uk/highsky/auror3.htm

https://www.hurtigruten.com/inspiration/experiences/the-northern-lights/myths-legends/

https://www.space.com/15139-northern-lights-auroras-earth-facts-sdcmp.

https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/astronomy/item/what-are-the-northern-lights/

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Nuclear_fusion_in_the_Sun

https://digestiblenotes.com/physics/electrons/excitation.php

Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry Behind Film CamerasEpisode #12 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Riya Mishra and Summer Wang and we are your hosts for episode #12 called the Chemistry Behind Film Development. Today we will be discussingwhat makes film cameras, such as Polaroids, or Canon Cameras, work.

Segment 1: Introduction to Film CamerasIn this episode, we’re going to be talking about how film is developed, and the chemical processes which occur every step of the way. Thanks to inventor and scientist Edwin H. Land, people can enjoy the look of a film picture without having to go through the process of developing film. Picture dark room photography, the low lights, the chemicals, and the long-long process before you get your photos. Now imagine that condensed into a tiny camera, weeks of work can be completed in a minute. This popular camera, made by popular companies like Polaroid and Instax provides a physical, and tangible memento in an instant. It seems like magic… but it’s all chemistry.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Film Cameras

When you hit ‘click’ on your camera, how does the photographic film develop on an atomic level? Firstly, it’s important to know that film is covered in a crystalline solid, usually a silver halide (so silver and a halogen). The most popular choice for film is silver bromide (AgBr). When photons from light come into contact with one of the grains, an electron is ejected from the valence levels of the bromine atoms, and onto the conduction band of the crystal. Then, the electron combines with a moving silver ion, and makes atomic silver. When this occurs multiple times, a clump of silver metal is produced. That atomic silver creates dark areas on the paper due to its color. The colorless ion Ag+ gains an electron to form solid silver. This seemingly simple reaction creates the dark colors that you see in your pictures. The formation of silver metal is directly proportional to the intensity of light. This may sound confusing, but it means that more light hitting the film means that area will appear darker when the film is developed. So, if anyone ever tells you to keep your picture in the dark as it develops, you know why.

For non-instant film cameras, once the picture is taken, film must be placed in a developer, or a chemical liquid which makes the concealed image on the film eventually visible. Developer itself can be chemically altered to adjust the rate at which the film develops-mainly with the usage of developing agents. Without developing agents, the process of film development could take hours, or even days! But, with some developing agents, like potassium hydroxide (KOH), this process can be sped up. You see, for film to develop at the quickest rate possible, the developing solution should have a pH between 10-11. This is a pretty high pH, meaning there needs to be a way for film developers to reach that pH without interfering with other parts of the developing process. KOH happens to be an extremely strong alkali, or a strong base. When KOH is added to the film, it produces an alkaline solution on top of the film. This raises the pH, bringing it to that 10-11 pH range which is optimal for development. So, by raising the pH, the entire process is sped up, and chemistry saves us tons of time!

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWhat interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

So, why did we choose this topic?

• We actually have a story from last month which really got us thinking about how instant cameras work, and how film develops…

For me, I love movies, and I knew I wanted to research a topic related to filmmaking in some way. I loved learning about the most basic tool for creating a movie, a camera, and really understanding the ways it works on a chemical level. I’ve also always been fascinated by the film development that goes into the creation of older movies and pictures. These chemical processes have been used by filmmakers and photographers for hundreds of years, and it’s interesting to think that the basics of chemistry we’ve learned in school can explain the creation of such beautiful movies or photos.

For me, I felt interested in this topic due to my love for art. Photography is such an interesting and special form of art, and I knew I wanted to learn more about how it works. Also, I’m the kind of person who loves capturing different moments with my friends on my Polaroid, and it was nice to learn about an object that’s given me a physical reminder of some of my favorite memories. Getting to know what really happens when I hit that button on the top of the camera is super interesting!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.

Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology-of-photography/Instant-picture-photography

https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context=senior_theses#:~:text=Photographic%20film%20and%20paper%20are,molecules%20to%20atomic%20metal%20silver.

https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-instant-polaroid-film

https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/instant-film.htm

https://dp.la/exhibitions/evolution-personal-camera/polaroid-era#:~:text=The%20inventor%20and%20founder%20of,these%20industries%20was%20instant%20photography.

https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developer-solution?lang=us

https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Photographic_developer.html#:~:text=In%20film%20developing%2C%20photographic%20developer,silver%20in%20the%20gelatine%20matrix.

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of Polyester Shirts & Their Impact On The EnvironmentEpisode #1Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Dorothy Wong and I am your host for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Polyester Shirts & Their Environmental Impact. Today I will be discussingthe structure of polyester, how it is made, why it is used to make shirts, and its impact on the environment.

Segment 1: Introduction to PolyesterPolyester is a type of polymer.

Polymers are chains of thousands of monomers, forming a single big molecule.

• Monomers are smaller molecules that can react with each other to form polymer chains.
• The process is called polymerization.
• It is amorphous - polymer chains are randomly bunched together.
• The bonds within polymers are covalent (intramolecular forces),
• The bonds between polymers are dipole-dipole and London Dispersion (intermolecular forces).

Polyesters, in particular, are made by mixing an alcohol with a carboxylic acid.

• This reaction forms an ester functional group which is distinguished by the atom chain C-O-O.
• Another property of polyester in general is that it is a thermoplastic polymer - can be remelted and remolded.

Most Common Polyester: Polyethylene Terephthalate

• Also known as PET or #1 Recycling Plastic
• Properties: High strength, low shrinkage, chemical resistance → This makes it ideal for plastic containing and clothes.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Polyethylene TerephthalateProcess Of Making Polyethylene Terephthalate Fiber

• A condensation reaction occurs between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate.
• This ends up becoming a monomer, containing the ester functional group COO (trait of a polyester as stated before).
• The monomers react once more with dimethyl terephthalate to form the polymer (PET).
• Molten polyethylene is formed into long strands that cool and dry.
• They are then broken up again, melted, and spun into fibers.
• The final product is polyester fibers that can be dyed and turned into clothing.

Chemical Bonding...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Apollo 11Episode #8  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Max Warias and Harris Hamid, and we are your hosts for episode #8 called Chemistry of Apollo 11. Today we will be discussing the chemistry and history of the Apollo 11 Mision/ Segment 1: Introduction to Apollo 11 MissionExplain what the Apollo mission was and why the US wanted to go to the moon. Discuss the technological advancements at the time and the space race with Russia. Discuss why it was such a big deal and how big of a success it was. Under a decade between Kennedy’s speech and the moon landing Massive importance in tandem with Cold War There were two main parts to the mission. Getting to get to the moon and getting back home Leaving Earth: Talk about the Saturn V rocket. rocket propulsion, nose cone with pressure matching with exit gas velocity. Cone volume manipulation. Talking about efficiency Getting down: Talk about the command module. How it had to disperse heat from reentry going thousands mph. All the drag creates heat which needs a proper heat shield.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind rocket propulsionLeaving Earth’s Atmosphere Chemistry of propulsion Combustion reactions Fuel consists of a primary fuel, generally a hydrocarbon, and an oxidizing agent, either oxygen or something with oxygen in it, so that it can vaguely follow the outline of a combustion reaction. These reactions are quite violent and release a lot of energy per unit of fuel, making them good for weight efficiency First stage used kerosene and oxygen in a standard hydrocarbon combustion reaction, producing heated CO2 and H2O as exhaust The second and third used hydrogen and oxygen gas, also a combustion reaction, but without carbon and only producing water as an exhaust RCS thrusters for in space maneuvering of the module was a pseudo combustion reaction between monomethyl hydrazine as the fuel and dinitrogen tetroxide oxidizer, as they were easier to store in small quantities Gas laws The general idea behind propulsion is the manipulation of gasses, which generally behave according to the equation PV=nRT (PressureVolume=amount of gastemp*constant) Rocket engines are at peak efficiency when the exhaust has equal pressure to the surrounding atmosphere and the plume is straight and doesn’t deform To do this, rocket scientists developed rocket nozzles to gradually increase volume to decrease the pressure until it matches the surrounding air Discuss the 3 stages and fuel within each Combustion reactions and gas law manipulation

Re-entry into Earth's Atmosphere Heat dissipation and absorption, enthalpy;  The command module used a heat shield made of phenolic formaldehyde resin which burned and melted away during re-entry, absorbing heat and carrying it with it as it melted and charred off the module. Enthalpy of melting was present here. It ensures that the module doesn't burn up on re-entry o The heat shield also had many coverings such as a pore seal, moisture barrier, and silver Mylar thermal coating.

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWhat interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share. It was a massive engineering marvel of the 20th century. Going from having a person in space to having people go to the moon and come back. I’ve been interested in engineering and technology all m life and this was such a massive milestone for not just the US but for mankind.  It reveals the advancements made with technology and how far and wide we can actually reach. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Rocket_propellant (https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Rocket_propellant)...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsVinyl RecordsEpisode #_6_  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Dominic Chila and I am your host for episode #6 called Chemistry behind Vinyl Records Today I/we will be discussing The history of Vinyl records, how they are made, and how the sound is created. Segment 1: Introduction to Vinyl RecordsVinyl records have been around for almost a century and still continue to grow in popularity.  In the 1930’s they began as a way to share the love of music with one another and it blossomed into millions of people collecting vinyl records in order to preserve the original sound of the music as the world became digitalized. When cassettes, cds, and mp3s came around many people decided the age of vinyl had come to an end and went fully digital. After decades of digitalized music became the go to form of music, vinyl saw a resurgence in the late 2010s. January of 2017 had the highest number of vinyl records sold in one month since 1991. 2017 marked the tenth consecutive year of vinyl growth, partially thanks to indie rock, the emergence of more record stores, and the novelty of the format. Today, vinyl records continue to grow in popularity. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Vinyl RecordIn Todays podcast I will walk through how vinyl records are made as well as how they are able to produce sound. Vinyl records are made of a chemical compound called polyvinyl chloride, or PVC. PVC is considered a plastic due to it's malleability and plasticity in it's solid state of matter. In PVC, a CH2 molecule (see chemical formula on screen) is bonded to a CHCl (see chemical formula on screen) through a double bond between the carbon.  The intermolecular forces between molecules of PVC inclue dipole dipole and London disprson forces. London dispersion forces occur in between all molecules. Dipole dipole forces occur when the positive end of a molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. Since PVC is polar it is able to produce dipole dipole forces but it is unable to form hydrogen bonds because it does not contain nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.  The turntabe is able to create sound through the record with the use of energy. When a record spins, it creates sound energy in the form of vibrations that get converted into electrical energy signals. These signals are fed into electronic amplifiers. Electric amps vibrate and feed the resulting sound into speakers, which amplify it and make it louder.  You may be asking yourself, how does this relate to chemistry. Well you see, those electrical signals are transferred through the internal wiring. The wiring is made of metal which has free-flowing electrons that actually allow the charge to flow through to the amplifiers. Let me explain, the metal used, let's use copper, is able to conduct electricity due to it's properties as a metal and it's bonding. Metallic bonding is very important for conducting electricity because of the free electrons involved. Unlike other bonding, metallic bonding does not bond the electrons to the atom. This “sea of electrons” is able to allow electrical currents to pass through it. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsThe vinyl record first stood out to me while I was in my basement and stumbled upon a collection of them that belonged to my dad. I set out and bought a brand new record player and listened to the ones I had found. Ever since I have been collecting vinyl to listen to at numerous stores, yardsales, and online. I think it's important to keep vinyl records around because even tho times are changing very fast, it's always good to remember the past and keep nostalgic items in your life. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sourceshttps://www.lenntech.com/polyvinyl-chloride-pvc.htm...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of the SunEpisode #13  Segment 1: Introduction to Fusion in the SunWelcome to chemistry connections, my name is Tyler Longo And I am Sathya Kummarapurugu, and we are your hosts for episode #13.  Today we will be discussing the processes that take place in the sun, through a chemistry-focused lens Before a star is born there are clouds of dust in the area it will be formed. When clouds of dust begin to be pulled together by the force of gravity gaseous stars begin to be formed As gravity drags these gas particles together making stars, the temperature in the core increases to very high temperatures. As the amount of thermal energy in the core increases the temperature also increases. As temperature increases the avg kinetic energy in the sun’s core increases, and according to the equation KE=0.5mv2 as Kinetic energy increases the velocity of the hydrogen atoms in the core increases. According to the collision theory, when a particle collides with another particle with enough activation energy, a bond may form, releasing energy.  So since the temperature is so high, does that mean that the Hydrogen atoms within these stars begin to collide and form a bond? Technically, since hydrogen particles are protons, two protons coming close together have a repulsive force between them by Columbus law since both protons are positively charged and particles with the same charge repel each other. Columb’s law states that objects of the same charge repel each other and objects of opposing charge attract each other. This attraction(electrostaticforce) and repulsion are directly proportional to the distance between the particles and charge magnitude. But the strong nuclear force overcomes the repulsive force and the two protons bind together That’s really only the first step of the process in which hydrogen atoms become helium atoms through fusion. It’s actually a multistep process called a proton-proton chain reaction So how it works is first, two hydrogen atoms collide together through the power of this force called the strong nuclear force. These are basically just protons.  A proton is composed of an up, up, and down quark. These are one of the fundamental particles of the universe So when the weak force is applied, this causes an up quark to become a down quark, thus changing the two of the particles from protons to neutrons Yeah, There are also 4 other fundamental quarks: strange quarks, charm quarks, top quarks, and bottom quarks.  What’s important is that up quarks have a charge of +2/3 and down quarks have a charge of -1/3, which means when two ups and one down come together to form a proton, it has a total charge of +1. Likewise, since a neutron has one up and two downs, it has a charge of 0 These quarks make up the fundamental particles of the universe such as neutrons and protons. Anyway, the protons are brought together by the Strong nuclear force and joined together by the strong nuclear force. The quarks are joined together by the gluons within each proton. When the strong force brings another proton towards the proton and then the protons collide with enough force, the protons stick together because the strong nuclear force joins a gluon to the quarks within the other proton causing the protons to bind and form a helium atom. The sun conducts nuclear fusion within its core, and these interactions that occur between quarks are central to the fusion process. When the protons fuse one Helium atom is created. The fusion releases a bunch of thermal energy. When bonds are formed energy is released and to break these bonds energy is required. Forming a bond through the strong nuclear force releases a lot of energy because the strong nuclear force is so strong at that microscopic scale.  In the sun, about 74% of the mass is composed of hydrogen, and about 25% of the mass is composed of helium That means we can...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry Behind Acid RefluxEpisode #16Welcome to episode #16 of Chemistry Connections. We’re your hosts, Jeri Nestle and Andrew McManimon. In today’s episode, “The Chemistry Behind Acid Reflux,” we’ll be discussing Acid Reflux: what causes it, how it can be treated, and the chemistry behind it all.   Segment 1: Introduction to Acid RefluxWe’ll start with the definition of acid reflux… So, what is acid reflux?  commonly called gastroesophageal reflux disease or simply GERD some background about the condition: is defined as the occurrence when stomach acid comes back up into the esophagus.  symptoms of GERD include heartburn, burning chest pains, and nausea (room for question- Why does it cause heartburn specifically?)  important to make the distinction between acid reflux and GERD- while technically the bodily process that occurs is the same thing, acid reflux is itself temporary, while GERD is chronic.  mechanics of reflux: the lower esophageal sphincter is a ring-shaped muscle that separates the stomach from the esophagus (clarify: multiple sphincters throughout the body) the job of the sphincter is to keep food down from the food pipe into the stomach, but in acid reflux, the sphincter doesn’t close completely and gastric acid can come back up into the food pipe  It’s interesting because we know what can cause acid reflux, but we don’t know why people develop GERD chronically 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid RefluxAcid reflux chemistry  This stomach acid, which is also called gastric acid, is mainly composed of HCl, and also contains KCl and NaHCl. It is highly acidic, with a pH between 1-2. For listeners who may not be familiar with the pH scale, it is BASED on a scale of 1-14 with pH values of 1-6 being labeled as “acidic” and those with a pH value of 8-14 being considered “alkaline.” 7 is a neutral baseline, in which acidic and alkaline, or basic, substances are compared. A common example of a neutral substance is pure water.  Weird that something so corrosive helps us live, but stomach acid provides a crucial key in our digestive process  because it is highly corrosive, it helps break down the food and substances we consume so our body can further break it down and take what we need from it, like vitamins and minerals. More specifically, it works to denature any consumed protein by decomposing its globular structure into amino acid chains. The low pH value also creates the perfect condition for enzymes in the stomach to function. One of the main types of enzymes in the stomach is called proteases, which work to break the amino acid chains into shorter chains, explaining globular amino acid things or individual amino acids to make digestion easier. These enzymes can only work at a low pH, so it is important to maintain this acidic environment.  Jeri recap in human terms  Human stomachs can contain stomach acid because the stomach lining is resistant to corrosion thanks to the mucus it secretes, but the lining of the esophagus is not. Acid reflux can usually be treated with an antacid, like Alka Seltzer. How antacids work to neutralize the HCl in gastric acid Antacids like Alka Seltzer, are doses of mild bases that react with the excess HCl in acid-base neutralization reactions to neutralize the acidity of the gastric acid, returning the body back to normal conditions Ex. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is an active ingredient found in Tums that neutralizes HCl  The acid-base reaction converts carbonic acid into CO2 into H2O  CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (calcium chloride) (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) MgCO3 and NaHCO3 are also common substances used to neutralize the stomach acid

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsJeri, personal connection has some LPR laryngopharyngeal reflux - acid reflux into the larynx/throat a lot of people have this, but don’t notice it...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry Behind Rainbows Episode #_3_  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our name’s are Julianna Silva and Chloe Mcgregor and we are your hosts for episode #3 called the chemistry behind rainbows. Today we will be discussing exactly how rainbows occur after a storm, how the wavelengths of each color work together, and how acids and bases cause acid rain to change the appearance of a rainbow.  Segment 1: Introduction to RainbowsHave you ever wondered how exactly rainbows occur after storms? It is instinct to run outside after a storm to look at rainbows. But why exactly do these beautiful rainbows occur?  Just last week when I was driving during the storm I saw a rainbow right outside my window which gave me the perfect idea for our podcast episode.  

Throughout this first segment, we will be going over the basic components of a rainbow, and exactly how the water and sunlight work together to expose the 7 individual colors of the rainbow.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rainbows To the human eye, the light that comes from the sun appears to be white. However, this white light is actually composed of the 7 wavelengths of color. A wavelength is the distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a sound wave or electromagnetic wave.  Each color is unique to its wavelength. The color red has the slowest and longest wavelengths while violet, on the opposite side of the rainbow, has the shortest and fastest wavelengths. When all of these wavelengths are together, they produce the normal, visible white light.  The electromagnetic spectrum consists of an array of wavelengths that produce a variation of radiations such as ultraviolet, infrared, radio, gamma rays, and x-rays.  On this same spectrum is visible light that consists of the 7 wavelengths of color combined. When these 7 wavelengths of color are combined, they produce a white visible light that we see from sunlight.  However, after a rainstorm when H2O molecules are present in the air, the white light is able to hit a new medium. Compared to the air, the white light uses the water molecules to refract, causing the 7 separate colors to become visible to the human eye. The interaction between the white light and the water droplets cause the wavelengths to separate, and therefore produce a rainbow across the sky after a storm.  One of the main reasons why wavelengths are separated when they hit water is because water is much denser than air. The density of water causes the separation of the electromagnetic spectrum. Also visible to the human eye is the curvature of a rainbow. After a storm hits, there is only a certain amount of water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. As the sunlight hits these specific droplets, a curved rainbow can be observed with respect to the curvature of the earth.  Not only does sunlight interact with rain water, but it also interacts with acid rain.  As we know, rainbows can come in many different sizes and are all unique to one another. The size in particular is determined by the makeup of the water droplets and scientists determine if there are chemicals in the atmosphere by simply observing it.  In particular, acid rain reacts differently with the sunlight as it passes through, resulting in a rainbow with a larger radius. Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are present in the atmosphere and get absorbed in the precipitating rainwater. The acid then has a different refraction and the interaction with water molecules together contributes to the change in rainwater and the angle with respect to sunlight that the rainbow is observed. The angle at which the rain interacts with the light can be used to estimate the pH value of the rainwater.  But what are acids? What is the composition of acids?  When other substances are added into...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting Network Chemistry Connections Episode #12Segment 1: IntroductionOur names are Veer Davda and Ramit Dasika, this is episode number 12 of Chemistry Connections and we will be talking about seizures. Seizures are really scary and for a lot of people it can strike at any time, if you have a seizure disorder, by just playing a video-game or watching T.V can cause a seizure to strike at any moment. What we try to discover in this episode is what the chemistry behind a seizure is and the chemical processes behind the seizure. 1. So- What is a Seizure? A seizure is a symptom in which there is a disturbance in the brain. It leads to changes in mood, behavior, and level of consciousness in the day. It can change your behavior, feelings, and level of responsiveness every minute. During a seizure, there is a sudden intense burst of electricity that disrupts how the brain usually works. This activity can happen on one small part of the brain and last for just a couple of seconds, or it can spread right across the brain and keep going for many minutes.  Now, where that sudden burst of electricity comes from is the question we are trying to figure out and what exactly causes that burst of electricity is what we aim to figure out. 

There are also many causes of that burst of electricity, like Chemical weapons such as sarin and VX, and pesticides such as parathion and carbaryl cause hyperstimulation of cholinergic receptors and an increase in excitatory neurotransmission.  Segment 2: Chemistry behind SeizuresNow, let’s take a look at the Chemistry behind Seizures. Ionic Substances or ionic compounds form from ions that are attached together with ionic bonding, which is based on the attraction between the positively charged cation and negatively charged anion. When ionic substances dissolve in water and it becomes a solution, the ionic bonding is broken and the compound dissociates to produce positive and negative ions or cations and anions. These ions that are produced are electrolytes. They are called electrolytes because according to their charge, they will be negatively charged ions(anion) or positively charged ions(cations). They can be ionic or covalent compounds. If it is an ionic compound, the compound of a nonmetal and a metal dissociate to yield its appropriate ions, which are electrolytes. If it is a covalent compound, the covalent bonding between both nonmetals are broken and the negatively charged ions are produced. In Epilepsy, there is an imbalance in the number of electrolytes as it causes sodium disorders (especially hyponatremia), hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia. The immediate correction of electrolyte imbalances is crucial in permanent brain damage and drastic consequences due to epilepsy. Medical Conditions like Dehydration can impact electrolyte imbalance. The only vitamin deficiency known to cause or worsen seizures is a deficiency of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine). This deficiency occurs mainly in newborns and infants and causes seizures that are hard to control. https://www.sielc.com/Compound-Vitamins.html (https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sielc.com%2FCompound-Vitamins.html&psig=AOvVaw1STaSg9HhDqUNwTE8ljqpq&ust=1654281013046000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCLi3lJazj_gCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD)  Pyridoxine can be used to which can be classified as C8H11NO3 , it has a carbon chain, with 8 Carbons, since it has a pretty long surface area, due to the long carbon chain, it is more polarizable and has stronger LDF forces, it has some OH bonds attached to the carbons and has CH3 bonds attached to other carbons, making this a very unique molecule. A vitamin B6 deficiency of pyridoxine deficiency can cause seizures.

Segment 3: Personal Connections What Interests us in this Topic  (Veer)What mainly interested me into this topic was my interest in seizures and how exactly they worked. My mom also...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsLight Up Our WorldEpisode #1  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sarah and I'm Akhansha and we are your hosts for episode #1 called “Light Up Our World”. Today we will be discussing the chemistry behind solar panels. Segment 1: Introduction to Solar PanelsSolar panels are an alternative, renewable energy source that have gained popularity in recent years. In this episode, we will be explaining how solar panels receive light and produce electricity. But why are solar panels important? Electricity runs the modern world, being necessary for almost all of our daily activities. However, in this day and age, the source of electricity is just as important as electricity itself. cough Climate change cough. Solar panels provide an alternative pathway to gain energy without harming our world like other sources of electricity.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind TOPICSo how do solar panels convert light into electricity? Solar panels are made of two types of semiconductors: P-type and N-type. Before we elaborate, we’d like to clarify what a semiconductor is. A semiconductor is a substance that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. On the periodic table, elements that are semiconductors are silicon, germanium, tin, selenium, and tellurium. The P-type layer is placed next to the N-type layer. In the P-type layer, atoms with one less electron in the outer shell compared to silicon, like boron and gallium, are added. This absence of an electron is referred to as a “hole” that is positively charged. In the N-type layer, atoms, like phosphorus, that have one more electron in the outer shell than silicon, are added. This creates an excess of electrons in the N-type layers since one electron is free to roam after phosphorus bonds with neighboring silicon atoms.  Electrons in n-type layer travel to vacancies in p-type layer Depletion zone - area around junction between p-type and n-type layers where electrons fill holes When holes are filled in the depletion zone… Negatively charged ions in p-type part of depletion zone Positively charged ions in n-type part of depletion zone Internal electric field created that prevents more electrons from n-type layer from filling holes in p-type layer Sunlight ejects electrons from silicon, creating more holes Electrons are attracted to positive silicon nuclei (opposite charges attract) Energy is needed to break the attractive force between electrons and silicon nuclei Electrons closer to silicon nuclei will be harder for sunlight to eject (Coulomb’s law) Sunlight must have enough energy to remove electrons from silicon atoms Different types of solar radiation have different energies Higher-energy solar radiation (higher frequency light waves) may be more capable of ejecting electrons Solar radiation Also called electromagnetic radiation Light emitted by the sun the amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies based off of location, time of day, season, local landscape and local weather Solar radiation is captured and is turned into useful forms of energy Harder to remove electrons from elements neart the top right of the periodic table (increased Zeff, fewer E-levels) Ejection in electric field → field moves electrons to n-type layer and holes to p-type layer If n-type and p-type layers are connected with a wire, electrons travel from n-type layer to p-type layer by crossing depletion zone and then through wire out of n-type layer → electricity Two main types of solar energy technology: Photovoltaics (PV) and Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power (CSP) Photovoltaics When the sun shines onto a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in the panel  This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Poisonous PlantsEpisode #15Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Brian Chin and I am your host for episode 15 called Chemistry of Poisonous Plants. My name is Rey Riordan and I am also your host for this episode. Today we will be discussing various poisonous plants and how chemistry explains why they’re so dangerous. Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Poisonous PlantsMost people instantly think of poison ivy when they think of poisonous plants. The familiar itchiness, irritation, red skin. However, there are many other poisonous plants out there that are much more deadly. “Poisonous plants” are formally defined as plants that when touched or eaten in sufficient quantities are harmful or even fatal to organisms.  So, let’s talk about some examples, starting with the water hemlock: Water hemlock has many nicknames: beaver poison, devil’s flower, break-your-mother’s-heart According to Christianity, the water hemlock, which is native to the Mediterranean region, became poisonous after growing on the hillside of Jesus’ crucifixion On the outside, the water hemlock also gives signs of its poisonous nature. Its stem is streaked with purple and red and the leaves release an odor when crushed This plant famously killed the philosopher Socrates after he drank hemlock tea - Socrates felt numbing sensation that spread throughout body before he died

The stinging nettle is another extremely dangerous plant: The nettle, which can grow up to 7 feet tall, has stinging hairs known as trichomes on its green leaves (can be as big as 6 inches) and stem These trichomes inject harmful chemicals upon contact Because of its unique effects, the nettle has even impacted Western culture to a certain extent Aesop had a fable called “The Boy and the Nettle” The English word “nettled,” which denotes someone who’s irritated, is also derived from the properties of the stinging nettle

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Poisonous PlantsPoison ivy Oxidation of urushiol in body Urushiol is the chemical in poison ivy that causes the allergic reaction. It’s a type of molecule known as a catechol, which means that it has a ring of six carbon atoms with alcohol (OH) groups attached to two of them, and then a string of trailing hydrocarbons (as shown in diagram). When something brushes up against poison ivy and urushiol comes into contact with air as a result, it reacts with the O2 molecules in the air and becomes oxidized. The H atoms are broken off, which means that an electron is lost and the oxidation number of O increases from -2 to -1 to compensate (this is what oxidation is). Oxidized urushiol with two double-bonded oxygens is then able to react with and stick to certain proteins of the skin. When reacted with a protein, urushiol acts as a hapten, which means that it causes an immune system response by changing the shape of the protein and making it seem foreign and dangerous to the body. This is what actually causes the allergic reaction of rashes and blisters that poison ivy is so well-known for. Water hemlock Cicutoxin Cicutoxin often more concentrated in hemlock’s roots - so don’t touch roots Cicutoxin’s chemical formula is C17H22O2 Qualifies as alcohol because two hydroxyl groups (OHs) attached to carbon atoms that are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain Chemically, cicutoxin causes neuronal depolarization - essentially, the electric charge in a neuron cell changes so inside of cell becomes less negative than outside Too much neuronal depolarization causes cells to become overactive - overactive cells is the reason why cicutoxin damages nervous system and causes seizures - if seizures aren’t treated, can lead to swelling in brain, muscle breakdown, blood becoming too acidic Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, tremors Mass spectrometry Hospital labs use mass spectrums to see whether or not patient’s blood has...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of a Plasma BallEpisode #14  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Daniel Wolf and I am your host for episode #14 called Chemistry of a Plasma Ball. Today I will be discussing plasma, electron transitions, ionization energy, and noble gases. Segment 1: Introduction to The Plasma BallIn this segment, I want to briefly overview what a plasma ball is and where it came from. Nikola Tesla, a famed scientist for his many breakthroughs in electricity, invented and patented the “plasma lamp” while experimenting with high voltage phenomena. In 1971, another scientist named Bill Parker would invent the modern version of the plasma ball. James Falk would later commercialize it as a novelty toy.   How it works: A high voltage alternating current is emitted from the small electrode in the center of the plasma globe The globe itself contains a mixture of inert noble gases in a vacuum-sealed container  The high voltage alternating current ionizes the gas creating plasma, and an electric current is allowed to flow.    Plasma filaments extend from the coil- the lightning effect seen extending from the coil  The color of the light is dependent on the noble gas being ionized in the plasma ball The flow of electrons and the noble gas involved creates plasma filaments that radiates across the globe A human is much more conductive than glass, which is why the plasma filaments become a large singular beam, because it's looking for a “ground” 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind the Plasma Ball There are quite a few connections to chemistry within a plasma ball. For example, the fact that plasma balls contain the fourth state of matter plasma.  Simplified, when a solid is heated it turns into a liquid, when a liquid is heated it turns into a gas, and when a gas is heated it becomes plasma.   It takes around 10,000 K - 100,000 K to create plasma (10-100 electron volts (eV))  Ionization energy is the energy required to remove a single electron from an atom. Plasma is formed when electrons from gas are ionized, creating a soup of electrons and positive ions.  Electricity (a flow of electrons) collides with noble gas atoms in the plasma ball. Electrons attached to the atoms are knocked off. Standard plasma balls contain 2-5 kilowatts of electricity at 30Hz.  Lightning can be seen in the plasma ball due to the properties of plasma, being that it can conduct electricity due to the free-flowing charged particles (cations and electrons). Electrons are held together by electrostatic attractions  Comparing the other states of matter, solids tend to have very packed and tight-fitted particles in a lattice structure. It’s classified by its definite shape and volume.  Liquids have particles that move and slide past each other. There is more freedom in a liquid’s movement, so it has an indefinite shape and volume  Down to the atomic structure, gases tend to have particles that move with higher speed and kinetic energy, there is a great amount of space between particles making the particles much more dispersed. Indefinite shape and volume 

What about the different colors of plasma ball lightning. Some plasma balls emit a green color, while others emit a purple color.  Electricity excites the electrons in the noble gas to different orbitals, when these electrons return back to their original orbitals in what’s called an electron transition, a photon is emitted.  A photon is a particle of light and can be treated as such. Essentially the electron transition emits light. The color of light is dependent on the energy difference between two energy levels  Example: an electron transition from the 3rd to the 1st energy level has a greater energy difference than an electron transition from the 2nd to 1st energy level. Example: neon causes a...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChernobyl DisasterEpisode #11  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Melissa and Elise and we are your hosts for episode 2 called The Chernobyl Disaster. Today we will be discussing the nuclear disaster in a city in Ukraine called Chernobyl. Segment 1: Introduction to ChernobylThe Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear explosion that occurred on April 26th, 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant No. 4 reactor. The nuclear power plant was located near the city of Pripyat in the northern part of Ukraine, which was a part of the Soviet Union at the time. The explosion of Chernobyl’s number 4 reactor (RBMK-type reactor) released large amounts of radiation into the city. The area within a 30 kilometer radius of Chernobyl is now considered the Chernobyl exclusion zone. To this day, there are still areas in the exclusion zone where the radiation is far too dangerous for human contact. (talk ab how chernobyl is a tourist attraction and people can go see it) Melissa: Isn’t there a tourist attraction where people can go to Chernobyl? Elise put in stuff ab attraction The Chernobyl disaster is the worst nuclear disaster in terms of cost and casualties. The initial emergency response alone involved more than 500,000 personnel, which included firefighters, engineers, military troops, police, miners, cleaners and medical personnel. The cost was around 18 billion Soviet rubles, which converts to 68 billion US dollars. 31 people died as an immediate result, but in 2005, it was predicted that as many as 4,000 people could eventually die from radiation exposure. (convo about how it’s almost impossible to calculate cost of lives) Melissa: I think it’s really hard to calculate because I think there were lasting effects right? Elise talks ab some of the lasting effects  Along with human deaths, countless animals were slaughtered in Chernobyl’s surrounding area in fear of their exposure to radiation. Elise: Let’s look at some of the people who were involved in Chernobyl  Important people involved:  Valery Legasov: The main chemist behind the investigation of Chernobyl and his work in its containment as well. He commit suicide ten years after the disaster, partly because he knew he would die sooner because of the radiation exposure. He had a set of audio tapes that he recorded before his death where he described his involvement with Chernobyl in full detail.  Anatoly Dyatlov: A Soviet engineer and deputy chief engineer for the Chernobyl power plant. He supervised the safety test that resulted in the Chernobyl explosion. He was the main person blamed for the disaster, as he did not follow safety protocols. (he did spend time in jail because it was mainly his negligence that caused the explosion) Mikhail Gorbachev: leader of the Soviet Union at the time of the explosion Boris Shcherbina: A Ukrainian Soviet politician who supervised the Chernobyl disaster. He had a really large role in allowing the investigation to receive the information and research that it needed.  coal miners & firemen: They were people considered the first responders in the incident. There were obviously firemen who were woken up in the middle of the night and had to go and put out the fire. They were heavily exposed to radiation and when they went to the hospital, they had to throw their uniform and equipment in the basement. To this day, the basement of the hospital is one of the most contaminated places and cannot be accessed due to its extreme radiation. (talk ab the scene in the docu maybe) Miners were brought in to dig a tunnel under the reactor to prevent the melting core from contaminating the groundwater. (which would put many lives at risk) It’s approximated that one out of four of the miners died later as a result of radiation poisoning.  Melissa: now that we know the people who were involved, let’s take a closer look at what...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsPharmaceutical ChemistryEpisode #7  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Eve O’Leary and I am your host for Episode 7 called Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Today I will be discussing The Thalidomide Tragedy. Segment 1: Introduction to The Thalidomide TragedyDeveloped in Germany in the 1950s, thalidomide is a sedative drug that was administered to pregnant women experiencing morning sickness and insomnia associated with pregnancy. After its five years spent on the market, it was later discovered that the medicine was the cause for babies being born with a rare birth defect, phocomelia, resulting in severely malformed and underdeveloped limbs.  The majority of these deformities occurred in Canada, the United Kingdom, and West Germany.  Thalidomide was never approved for public consumption in the US The experiments were extremely poorly designed lacking a placebo group, excluding information for how long the treatment had gone on for, and failed to use a double blind procedure. 

The drug was withdrawn from shelves by the German distributor, Chemie Grunenthal on November 26, 1961 and was recalled from British shelves on December 2, 1961. The British Committee on the Safety of Drugs was established in June 1963, offering detailed regulations for the testing of potentially toxic effects on offspring using rats, mice, and rabbits.  Thalidomide cannot be administered to anyone who is possibly or is pregnant, and is instead used to treat a number of cancers and skin conditions such as leprosy. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind The Thalidomide TragedyBefore we start talking about why thalidomide had the effects that it had, let's start by talking about some of its general properties. Below is the chemical structure of thalidomide compound (C13H10N2O4).  Thalidomide contains several different intermolecular forces: London Dispersion Forces Dipole-dipole interactions Hydrogen bonding Extremely important in drug design.  More energy is required to break the compounds apart. Has a boiling point of approximately 509.7OC and is insoluble in water

Now that we have a good understanding about the properties of thalidomide, a key understanding of chirality is essential in explaining the issue with the drug. Chirality, key to organic chemistry, is a geometric property used to describe mirror image isomers, called enantiomers, that are not superimposable.  The best analogy for this is your hands. If you were to place the left hand over the right, the spatial arrangement will not be the same.  The nomenclature of chiral molecules is called the R/S system where R stands for “rectus” which means right in Latin and S stands for “sinister.”  Enantiomers share the same physical and reactive properties except for their effect on plane-polarized light.  Thalidomide is a racemic mixture of R and S enantiomers.  The R-enantiomer has sedative properties while the S-enantiomer is teratogenic, meaning that it raises the risk of or causes birth defects. Specifically, it degrades a cell protein known as SALL4 which is responsible for the full development of limbs and important organs. Unfortunately, the isomers cannot be effectively separated before use as they convert into one another under biological conditions. 

See if you can identify the structural difference between the two isomers: Segment 3: Personal Connections Thalidomide had a huge impact on the United Kingdom (where my family is from) My maternal grandmother was actually offered thalidomide when she was pregnant in the 1950s  This past year, I worked as a consulting intern. I was given the opportunity to research and correspond with a number of companies including Bexa, which is a high resolution breast elastography device. Made me passionate, not only about the biomedical industry, but also women’s healthcare in...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of ComputersEpisode #11  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Alex and Tom and we are your hosts for episode 11 called The Chemistry of Computers. Today we will be discussing how chemistry is essential for the function of computers . Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Laptops Computers are heavily present in our society today, they are used in almost all jobs, schools, etc. Our world relies on computers and computers rely on chemistry.  There are several parts of the computer that are necessary for its function, first of which is the motherboard, this is like the nervous system of the computer and it allows all of the different components to communicate with each other.  Central Processing unit or CPU, this is a silicon chip that acts as the brain of the computer, it processes all the data for the computer.  These days most computers store information in a device called a Solid State Drive or SSD, this device holds all the information for the computer.  Alongside these more behind the scenes aspects are the more well known parts of a computer such as the screen or battery.

All of these components use electricity and generate heat, so in order to prevent the computer from getting too hot, they need to be cooled, most commonly by fans.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind ComputersConductors and Semiconductors:  There are several materials that are essential for the function of a computer, some of the materials include silicon, plastic, fiberglass, copper and gold, lithium  These materials are sorted into three categories: Conductors, Semiconductors, and insulators Conductors are what allow electricity to flow because electrons can transfer from particle to particle  When electricity passes through a conductor it faces little resistance, allowing for uncontrolled free flowing current.   The insulator does not allow electrical current to travel through it since it has high resistance levels.  Semiconductors are a combination of the two, where they allow for the flow of electricity to be controlled. This is done by providing a slightly resistant material.   Almost all computers this is through silicon chips, however pure silicon is typically an insulator. This is because pure silicon is constructed from atoms that contain 4 electrons in the orbital furthest from the atom’s nucleus.  Due to this atomic structure, the silicon atoms covalently bond together to form a crystalline lattice. By themselves this lattice does not conduct electricity, since the electrons are held stable in the rigid structure. In order for silicon to become a semiconductor electrons must be added or subtracted from the silicon lattice.  This process starts with materials that either have three or five electrons that are mixed into the silicon to disrupt the covalent bonds in the crystal lattice structure, this process is called doping. N-type doping uses materials with 5 electrons in the outer orbital, the most common materials used for this are phosphorus and arsenic. These materials add a fifth free electron to the lattice which allows the material to conduct electricity since the electrons are now free flowing.  P-type doping is the same process just with materials that have three electrons in their outer ring, such as boron or gallium. The addition of an atom like this leaves the absence of an electron or a hole through which the free-flowing electron can travel.  N and P type semiconductors are used to create transistors, these small devices are essential for computers.  Transistors act as both an electrical switch as well as an amplifier. They can also be used to retain code as memory blocks, making them crucial to microchip manufacturing, from processors to memory cards. 

Light and Screens:  Utilizes liquid crystal molecules

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry Connections

Episode #4  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Andrew Neal and Isabella Randazzo and I am your host for episode 4 called The Chemistry Behind Crime today we will be discussing forensics science and the chemistry behind it. Segment 1: Introduction to Forensic Science-Forensic Science is defined as scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime, forensics can be used in all sorts of crimes including, but not limited to, homicide, theft, and kidnappings.  -the US government and justice system rely on forensics and forensic scientists to help solve crimes -some examples of techniques used are - fingerprinting -blood tests -DNA tests -wound studies -bullet entries in body and walls -ect Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blood TestingSo what exactly does AP chem have to do with the study of forensics and crime-solving? Blood testing

There are many different challenges that a scientist or investigator might face at a crime scene that might make it difficult to identify blood and find where it came from The blood could belong to an animal or a human The blood could belong to the unsub and not the victim All of this said, if blood is found at a crime scene it becomes a crucial part of the investigation, and it's often only found in small amounts so it is important that testing is done properly and effectively. 

What is blood? Water, plasma and proteins

-serums and anti serums/ chemical reactions between them  -Serum: The fluid component of blood that separates from the blood cells when a clot is formed -Antiserum: A combination of antibodies and serum -Kastle Myers Blood Test and chemical reactions - A Kastle Myers blood test is used to determine whether a sample is blood or not. The test uses hydrogen peroxide and phenolphthalin, which is reduced phenolphthalein, and the sample. During the test, the sample, a small amount of distilled water, hydrogen peroxide, and phenolphthalin are mixed inside a test tube. If the sample is blood, then the solution will turn a bright pink color. However, if the sample is not blood, then the solution will remain clear. -The Kastle Myers Blood test is related to chemistry because of the chemical reactions and redox reactions that confirm the sample is blood. If the sample is blood, then a component of blood called hemoglobin, which is the protein in the blood responsible for transporting blood, reacts with hydrogen peroxide. This leads to the formation of an iron-oxo species and hydroxyl radical. Both of these products can cause a redox reaction with the phenolphthalin where either the iron-oxo species and hydroxyl radical are reduced and the phenolphthalin is oxidized into phenolphthalein. Since phenolphthalein creates a bright pink color, it turns the entire solution into a bright pink. Bonds in blood: Blood contains amino acid proteins that bond with each other Due to the larger sizes of the amino acids in blood, the londer dispersion forces created between them are pretty strong. The bond between the O2 and the hemoglobin contributes to the process of carrying oxygen throughout the bloodstream. The Fe+2 ions found in hemoglobins creates an ion induced dipole intermolecular for with oxygen molecules. When the antibodies in blood find a specific antigen to bond with, they are able to create a strong attraction. Although most intermolecular forces are weaker compared to intramolecular forces, the hydrogen bonding, electrostatic force, London dispersion forces, and hydrophobic links create a very strong attraction force.

• Due to the bond the multitude of intermolecular forces in blood as well as the thickness in blood, blood creates a unique splatter that can be analysed at a crime scene.
• The angle of the blood falling, the heigh of which the blood came from, and the velocity of the blood coming out of the body can all...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of MayoEpisode #9  Hello, and welcome to Chemistry Connections episode #9. I’m your host Andrew, and today we’ll be discussing the chemistry behind mayonnaise. Segment 1: Introduction to MayonnaiseLet’s get started by defining what mayo is. Mayo is made of oil, egg yolks, and a water-based acid like vinegar or lemon juice. Mayo is also an emulsion, which is a mixture of immiscible fluids - ones that do not dissolve in one another. This is achieved by finely dispersing one liquid into tiny droplets that are suspended in the other liquid, but emulsions last only temporarily. The most common emulsions that you’ll see on a daily basis are between oil and water. Emulsions between oil and water include milk, butter, and ice cream - each one has a stable balance of water and fat, which normally do not mix. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind EmulsionsOil, at the molecular level, is a substance called a triglyceride. Triglycerides are formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. These fatty acids are long chains made of carbon and hydrogen atoms, making triglycerides nearly nonpolar. On the other hand, we know that water molecules, or H2O, have a high net dipole moment because of the difference in electronegativity of the hydrogen to oxygen bonds. The oxygen atom in a water molecule has a partial negative charge, while the hydrogen side has a partial positive charge. You probably know that oil and water don’t mix, and when you try to mix them together in a cup, the oil will rise to the top. We can explain that through the intermolecular forces that exist between each type of molecule. Nonpolar oil molecules will form London dispersion forces. Water molecules will experience hydrogen bonding due to the especially high electronegativity difference across the O-H bond. When we try to mix them, the solute-solvent interactions that form are dipole-induced dipole forces, but these aren’t strong enough to break the solute-solute or solvent-solvent interactions, so we don’t observe solubility. This is where emulsifiers come in. These substances stabilize the suspension of little oil droplets in water, or vice-versa, so that they do not separate as quickly. Emulsifiers have two ends, allowing them to form a bridge between the two insoluble liquids. One portion is called lipophilic, or oil-attracting, and it is nonpolar, often made up of a hydrocarbon chain. The other end is called hydrophilic, or water-attracting, and it is polar or ionic. The hydrophilic end will form intermolecular forces with water molecules, which can be either ion-dipole or dipole-dipole, that are strong enough to overcome the hydrogen bonds, while the lipophilic end forms London dispersion forces that overcome the forces between oil molecules. When this happens, the emulsifier molecules will form physical barriers around droplets to prevent them from coalescing and breaking the emulsion. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsNow that we know the chemistry behind emulsions, we can return to the food that brought us here in the first place: mayo. Mayo has always fascinated me in how it is made, turning liquid ingredients into a thick, spreadable condiment. The principles of intermolecular forces are at work here too! In mayo, the water comes in the form of lemon juice or vinegar. You mix the liquid acid with egg yolks, which provide the emulsifier. Egg yolks contain lecithin, which are a type of phospholipid, or emulsifying molecule. When you slowly stream in oil, whisking quickly disperses the oil, and the lecithin molecules’ hydrophilic and lipophilic ends work to stably suspend the oil droplets. Eventually, you end up with creamy mayonnaise. By adding more liquid oil, you in fact make the mixture thicker because it becomes much more difficult for the water molecules to flow as they surround the oil droplets. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more...

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of SunglassesEpisode #5  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Austin Martorana and Tyler Hersh and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Sunglasses. Today we will be discussing about radiation and the reaction that causes a tint in the glasses.  Segment 1: Introduction to SunglassesHave you ever put on sunglasses and been like, “How do these sunglasses block the sun.” Well, so did we. Well that's actually very interesting because I’ve wanted to know this for a long time and doing research on it shared a lot of information like why do these little pieces of glass absorb UV rays and make everything a little bit darker? Yea, i agree after this project I finally realized how the lenses block out light to help you see better.  Some background information is that UV rays are a form of radiation wavelengths that is commonly found through sunlight.  Not only do the sunglasses block out UV rays they have a specific reaction that takes place in the tints through excited electrons Some background to electrons are when they hold more energy than when in their original state. This will cause them to be excited. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind SunglassesHey Tyler when you go to the beach do you wear sunglasses? Yea, Austin I do they help protect my eyes from the sun.  Today we are going to dive into exactly how sunglasses work to protect our eyes from the sun.   Sunglasses have a mirror coating on the outside edges that work as a defense against the UV rays from the sun.  The coating is treated with UV-absorbing chemicals so it can block harmful UV and reflect the light away.  The tint from the sunglasses comes from the reaction between cations of the silver compound in them and the electrons of the glass.  The cluster of silver electrons become excited when hit by light which makes them move back and forth which then allows silver to absorb the light and scatter it.  The energy from the sun acts as both wave particles and electromagnetic energy which are called Photons.  We can describe the characteristics of photons by wavelengths and frequency.  Wavelengths play a big part in describing radiation and knowing which radiation is which.  Radiation comes in 6 forms which are gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves.  Even though there are so many types of radiation, our eyes are sensitive to only a certain range of electromagnetic particles which is visible light.  This wave allows us to see colors when reflected or refracted.  But the sun also allows us to see certain radions that are above and below the range of 400-750 nm.  These rays are typically infrared, microwave, radio and the one that sunglasses are used for, ultraviolet. 

Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsI really never knew how sunglasses actually worked and how they protected your eyes.  Yea austin isn’t it so cool how the UV rays get absorbed into the lens to reflect light away making your eyes have less stress on them from the sun.  Yea Tyler I hate when I’m sitting in my chair in my living room playing fortnite and the sun shines right through the window onto my face and I can’t see. Thats when I get up, sprint to my room to get sunglasses, and rock some shades while Im playing fortnite so the UV rays can be reflected instead of getting absorbed by my regular glasses. Wearing sunglasses makes me perform a lot better because it blocks the sun and allows me to see my TV screen.  Yea austin I hate playing with you whenever the sun is shining through your window because you normally suck and we lose all the time. I need to carry you whenever you complain about the damn sun saying it’s in your eyes.  Well yea thats why I put my sunglasses on because the chemicals in the...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #23Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Devon Ennis and I am your host for episode 23 called the chemistry of candles. Today I will be discussing what happens to candle wax when the candle is lit and how candle wax is made.  Segment 1: Introduction to candlesI introduce the topic by describing where the earliest candles were found, and how they were used throughout time. The purpose of candles has changed from being used as a light source to being used for the scent. I also explain some of the materials used to make candles, and ask rhetorical questions about where the wax goes when burning a candle. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind candlesParaffin wax is made from crude oil and is the most common wax used in candles. The wick absorbs the liquid and pulls it upwards towards the flame. The heat from the flame vaporizes the wax. I also explain how the stream of white smoke after you blow out a candle is paraffin vapor that condensed into a visible form.  The feedstock for paraffin wax is slack wax, and the first step to making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from slack wax. The slack wax is heated, mixed with one or more solvents and then cooled. As it cools, the wax crystallizes while the oil is left in the solution. The hydrocarbon C31H64 is a typical component of paraffin wax. I explain how hydrocarbon molecules of different lengths have different behaviors and properties. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsI used candles all the time, and I’ve always been interested in how candles are made. As well as what happens to the wax as it burns. I had no idea how long the hydrocarbon chains were in candle wax until I was researching it. I was also surprised to know that it was made from crude oil.  Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sourceshttps://home.howstuffworks.com/question267.htm (https://home.howstuffworks.com/question267.htm) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle) https://www.webstaurantstore.com/guide/739/types-of-candles.html (https://www.webstaurantstore.com/guide/739/types-of-candles.html) https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/question105.htm (https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/question105.htm) Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #25  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Christopher Sawicki, and I am your host for episode #25. Today I will be discussing the chemistry of lightning. Segment 1: Introduction to lightningLighting, how lightning is produced and why Lighting gives of a smell and color Ionization: transfer of electrons to form an ion or from an ion Intramolecular forces: attractions between atoms in a molecule Intermolecular forces: attractions between entire molecules Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind lightningLightning Water and ice move around in the cloud, ice has a negative charge Updrafts and downdrafts in storms cause water molecules to collide which causes electrons to be separated from the molecules and move towards the bottom of the cloud Warm updrafts sweep positively charged molecules to the top of the cloud Updraft: current of air moving up Positive ions move towards the top of the cloud and creates an electric field Electrons are attracted to positive charged ions on the ground Can contain billions to trillions of electrons 1 billion volts of electricity Up to 5 billion Joules of energy Electrons are attracted to positive charged ions because they want to neutralize themselves. Protons move up and meet the electrons as they move down As electrons move down through during lightning, they crash into more molecules in the air, creating more ions This is why metals attract lightning because it has a sea of electrons and many positive charged ions. Smell The smell of thunderstorms is the result of ozone in the air As lightning travels down, it splits O2 molecules creating 2 oxygen atoms These oxygen atoms then bond with other O2 molecules creating ozone, O3 Color Creates a blue-violet color highlighting the lightning bolt Electrons form lightning ionize O2 and N2 molecules  These molecules become excited and take on a different color when in this state Heat The electrons in lightning carry heat.  Lightning can be up to 54,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Which is 6 times hotter than the sun Intramolecular forces Air is a poor conductor electricity Conductor means it it is easy for electrons to pass through Not ionic or metallic, covalent bonds make electrons not as attracted and easily given or pulled off Because air is a poor conductor of electricity, there is a greater resistance to the electrons moving through the air, which creates heat, heating up the molecules are the lightning Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsLightning fascinates me because clouds form seemingly out of nothing, evaporated water and produce lighting bolts with billions of electrons Enough electricity and energy to kill people 2000 people die a year due to lightning Always thought lightning was cool and wanted to know what cause lightning to occur Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://www.compoundchem.com/2018/07/31/thunderstorms/ (https://www.compoundchem.com/2018/07/31/thunderstorms/) https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-lightning (https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-lightning) https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/storms/thunder-and-lightning (https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/storms/thunder-and-lightning) https://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weather/weather.html#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20any%20electrons%20liberated%20near,and%20creating%20more%20charged%20fragments (https://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weather/weather.html#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20any%20electrons%20liberated%20near,and%20creating%20more%20charged%20fragments). https://www.tau.ac.il/~colin/research/Chemistry/chemistry.html (https://www.tau.ac.il/~colin/research/Chemistry/chemistry.html) Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #24  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Josh Beigman and along with Henry Stanton we are your hosts for episode #24 called The Chemistry of a Crocodile's Stomach. Today we will be discussing the Chemistry of the most powerful digestive system in the animal kingdom. Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of a Crocodile's StomachCrocodiles are able to digest almost anything they eat, so they swallow their food whole and then digest it. Crocodile stomachs are strong enough to dissolve anything they eat, which is the whole animal. This includes meat, cartilage, and even bone. They are able to eat rotten carcasses without feeling any effect from dangerous bacteria.  Their stomachs have even been found to be able to dissolve steel nails.  We found this interesting and wanted to learn more about it, so we made a podcast episode about it. Crocodiles are large reptiles that prey on a variety of animals, which means that they have to be able to digest almost all kinds of animals. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind a Crocodile's StomachThe HCl in the stomach helps break down what the crocodile has eaten faster because the Cl- ions denature the proteins because the Hydrogen bonds that were between the proteins are now replaced by ion dipole bonds between the Cl- ions and the proteins, which is a stronger type of bond. These denatured proteins are now able to be digested by enzymes like pepsin. All animal stomachs use HCl to break down the food they ingest. The HCl is produced by water and carbon dioxide reacting to make H2CO3, which dissociates into H+ and HCO3-. The HCO3- are exchanged for Cl- ions through an anion exchanger. The H+ ions and Cl- ions are then pumped into the stomach and break down the food. The reaction to create carbonic acid, or H2CO3, is catalyzed by the presence of an enzyme called Carbonic anhydrase.  The difference between a crocodile's stomach and a human's stomach is the amount of acid they are able to produce. Crocodiles are able to produce large amounts of HCl because their hearts have (aorta) a way to redirect CO2 from the lungs and send it to the stomach instead, which allows for more H+ ions to be produced, since CO2 is necessary for its production, so having more of it allows for more H+ to be produced. The pH of a crocodile's stomach is between 1 and 3. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWe always knew that stomach acid is extremely powerful, and that some animals are able to eat just about anything and come out none the worse for it. Human stomachs can't safely digest rotten food, and yet some animals like vultures and other scavengers eat nothing but food infested with lethal bacteria. After taking AP chemistry this year, we realized we had enough knowledge to understand the process of these super strong animal stomachs, so we used this project as an opportunity to investigate this  Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/02/11/2159238.htm (https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/02/11/2159238.htm)  https://www.britannica.com/animal/crocodile-order (https://www.britannica.com/animal/crocodile-order)  https://teachmephysiology.com/gastrointestinal-system/stomach/acid-production/ (https://teachmephysiology.com/gastrointestinal-system/stomach/acid-production/)  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid)  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_acid (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_acid)  https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/protein-acid-denaturation (https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/protein-acid-denaturation)  Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #26  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Anushka Agarwal and I’m Nick Bailey, and we are your hosts for episode #26 called the chemistry of photosynthesis in leaf slugs. Today we will be discussing how leaf slugs use photosynthesis Segment 1: Introduction to Chloroplasts and the Leaf SlugLeaf slugs are a sea creature that is able to use photosynthesis. This is uncommon because animal cells generally do not contain chloroplasts.  Chloroplasts are the organelle commonly found in plant cells where the photosynthesis reactions occur. Both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions take place here.  Photosynthesis is the process where chloroplasts turn carbon dioxide into glucose. Water is also needed for the reactions to occur and oxygen is produced in addition to the glucose.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind PhotosynthesisThere are two main parts to photosynthesis, the light-dependent and light-independent reactions.  Light Dependent: Chloroplasts require light energy in order to reduce NADP+ and ADP to create NADPH and ATP. We can see that this specific reaction is endothermic because the energy from the light was required to break the bonds in the reactants.  Light Independent: The light-independent reactions make the process of photosynthesis occur properly. The main reaction that takes place is referred to as the Calvin Cycle. This is the process where the plants use the CO2 to create glucose. The process starts with 3 Carbon-5 molecules(RUBP) and 3 Carbon- molecules(CO2). These combine to create 3 Carbon-6 molecules (mention stability) and will, almost instantaneously, turn into 6 Carbon-3 molecules. Then, in a process called reduction, 6 ATP and 6 NADPH, both of which donate electrons, will be oxidized and the carbons will be reduced, or will gain electrons. We will then have 6 Carbon-3 molecules(3G3P). One G3P molecule is “set aside” to later become glucose. The remaining 5 G3Ps go towards the process of regeneration where they will further reduce by 3 additional ATP molecules(go from 5 Carbon-3 molecules to 3 Carbon-5 molecules [same RUBP we started with]). In order to successfully create a single glucose molecule this process must occur twice because glucose is C6H12O6(only produce one Carbon-3 molecule in the first full rotation of the Calvin cycle) Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsNick: I found this topic particularly fascinating because it is one of the rare exceptions where animals use photosynthesis. As we had stated earlier, photosynthesis is commonly used in plants. The leaf slug can photosynthesize because it eats so much algae and is able to extract the chloroplasts from those plant cells, making it able to photosynthesize.  Anushka: I personally wanted to do this project on the leaf slug because I find them extremely interesting and cute. As I’d said earlier, please look up a picture of the leaf slug if you can, I promise you will not regret it. Not only are they amazing to look at, the leaf slug is also such an anomaly in nature. Their ability to photosynthesize because they eat too many greens never fails to peak my interest and wonder what else the world has hidden under the sea.  Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costasiella_kuroshimae (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costasiella_kuroshimae)  https://www.boredpanda.com/leaf-sheep-sea-slug-costasiella-kuroshimae/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=organic (https://www.boredpanda.com/leaf-sheep-sea-slug-costasiella-kuroshimae) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis)  https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis (https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis) ...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #2Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is EMILY GREENBERG and I am your host for episode #2 called The chemistry behind forensics. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind forensic science and crime scene investigation. Segment 1: Introduction to forensicsForensic science is the tests and techniques used in the detection of crime. Forensic scientists use the scientific method to solve crimes. They collect data and evidence from crime scenes and analyze it to try to figure out the manner and the perpetrator of a crime.  Analysis of blood or fingerprints left at a crime scene are very important in identifying a victim or a suspect. Clothing fibers, ink, ash, and much more can also be used in forensics to detect and solve crimes. Forensic science is one of the most critical aspects of the criminal justice system because it involves hard evidence and can be proven. Forensics are so important because they can help rule out manners of death and can find suspects for different crimes. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind forensicsChemistry is one of the most important aspects of forensics. The following methods are the most important chemical experiments that are used in forensics. Chromatography: This is a process where chemists use heat to separate mixtures into different contents so they can determine the individual components of a mixture. There are many different types of chromatography which will be described in this episode.  TLC (thin layer chromatography) is a less complex type of chromatography.  Used to analyze inks and dyes of fibers left at a crime scene and can help a forensic scientist match a fiber to a specific company if differences between fibers are very small Gas Chromatography is used for volatile liquids Often used to separate and analyze blood left at a crime scene. This can determine if the victim or suspect had alcohol or drugs in their system. Can be used to investigate cases of arson and can detect if an accelerant is used. This can be used to see whether a fire was intentional or not  Mass spectrometry is used as a detector by detecting the concentration of the substance  HPLC (High performance liquid chromatography) extracts individual components from a solution HPLC is used for nonvolatile mixtures A common detector for this type of chromatography is called an ultraviolet visible spectrometer  This is used for drug analysis because most pharmaceuticals have UV absorbance Alain Baxter Case Spectroscopy: field of chemistry that investigates spectrums created when matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation. Substances will have certain transmittance spectrums which allows the substances to be identified Certain types of spectroscopy are nondestructive and will be used before other destructive methods FTIR is one of the main types of spectroscopy infrared radiation is used to examine skin or clothing of a suspect in order to find evidence like gunpowder residue.  When the spectra of the unknown substance is created, a database can match the unknown spectra to a known spectra Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Involves heating the substance in order to break individual bonds  Radiation in the form of light is then passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a higher energy state When collecting fingerprints, investigators use an alternate light source to find latent (invisible) fingerprints  SWGDRUG (Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs) has guidelines for forensic chemists regarding the identification of unknown substances Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsThis topic is so important because it helps solve crimes and brings justice to criminals and victims. Forensic sciences have come a long way, and we can discover so many things about a crime just by looking at small particles left at a crime scene. I got into forensic science because I listened to True Crime...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #22  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sofie Ragins and I’m here with Xavier Jimenez and we are your host for episode #22 called The Chemistry behind Advil Today we will be discussing the chemical process that occurs when consuming advil to relieve pain   Segment 1: Introduction to AdvilAdvil temporarily relieves headaches, backaches, common colds, muscle aches, and other pain. Basically, Advil is a safe non-prescription pain reliever. This means that you or I can walk into a drug store and purchase Advil without a doctor's prescription In 2018 nearly 24 million people purchased advil.  The one and only active ingredient that is what actually causes the pain relief, Ibuprofen. Ibuprofen is part of a drug class called non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and the name Ibuprofen is derived from isobutyl (ibu) propionic acid (pro) phenyl (fen) Advil is dissolved in the stomach and then is absorbed by the intestinal wall in order to reach the bloodstream Eventually it reaches the areas where the synthesis of the prostaglandin is found. Prostaglandin are the fatty acids which cause the pain found near the damaged tissue.  Okay so we have covered the background but there are a lot of things that the biology does not cover so do you want to get into the Chemistry portion of this podcast Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind AdvilOf course, while I had just said ibuprofen is ‘dissolved’ in stomach acid, Ibuprofen is actually not soluble in stomach acid which we are gonna discuss as gastric acid.  I’ll start with a little background on Ibuprofen: it is a non-polar weak acid with a pH around 4.4. Ibuprofen is most soluble with organic solvents like ethanol, methanol, aceton, and dichloromethane Well, the non polar ibuprofen is what actually causes it to not dissolve with gastric acid. This is because Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and visa versus with nonpolar solutes and solvents. Knowing this principle, and that Gastric Acid is very polar it clearly indicates the nonpolar Ibuprofen will not form a solution with the polar gastric acid, this means no ibuprofen will technically be ‘dissolved’  Not only is ibuprofen insoluble but its molecule also has a large carbon chain. This carbon chain will create a great bond strength which is fairly difficult to break.  The significantly high bond strength is difficult to overcome and in order for the molecule to dissolve, the solvent-solvent bonds must be broken, and solvent-solute bonds need to form. Gastric acid is extremely acidic with a pH of 1-2 and any strong acid will pull apart the intramolecular forces bonding the molecule, which is why acid is so destructive. When the acid interacts with the ibuprofen it will break the bonds just like the acid would to regular food when digested. Because the reaction relies purely on the strength of gastric acid and the ibuprofen is insoluble,  This process will have a relatively long residence time, which means the reaction occurs at a slower rate. Now why don’t you explain the reaction rate. This slower rate is actually caused by the high activation energy of ibuprofen. Activation energy is pretty self explanatory, it's the energy it takes to activate or start a reaction. Since we are talking about the reaction rate of Ibuprofen we should talk about the activation energy of it. When it comes to thermodynamically favorable reactions with a high activation energy they theoretically should occur because when the reaction is thermodynamically favorable, it's favored to react.. Going back to ibuprofen, The required temperature for it to begin reacting is around 800 degrees fahrenheit.  Ibuprofen is a nonselective inhibitor of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase (syclo-oxygen-naise) This enzyme is required for the synthesis of ibuprofen in the acid pathway The enzyme plays a major role in getting this reaction to occur. Because the...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #14Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Paz and my name is Olivia and we are your hosts for episode #14 called The Chemistry Behind Ice Cream Today we will be discussing how ice cream is made and stays cold. Segment 1: Introduction to Ice CreamI think we’ve all heard of ice cream, the cold dessert we have on hot summer days. A multitude of flavors including mint chocolate chip, strawberry, and the classic vanilla and chocolate. The creation of ice cream in its origins have been widely disputed but it reaches as far back as the second century B.C.. Important historical figures like Alexander the Great, Nero Caesar, and King Soloman enjoyed a cold treat similar to the modern ice cream many of us eat today. Today, the total frozen dairy production is over 1.6 billion gallons making it the most popular dessert in the United States; however, few people actually know the chemistry involved in sprinkle covered and cherry topped frozen treats! Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Ice CreamTopic 1 - Stabilizers The first topic we are going to cover today is stabilizers in ice cream. Stabilizers have many purposes, but one of the main ones is to increase the mix viscosity of ice cream, which means to thicken the mixture. This increases creaminess, helps the ice cream resist melting, and limits the growth of ice and lactose crystals during storage. Stabilizers help ice cream resist melting because as the viscosity increases, the rate at which ice cream melts slows. And stabilizers help limit the growth of ice and lactose crystals through a phenomenon called diffusion kinetics. As viscosity increases, the diffusion or movement of water molecules decreases and ice crystal growth slows. So, ice cream doesn’t have those crystals in its creamy mixture. Stabilizers also prevent a water sirum mixture from leaking out of the mixture while it melts and helps prevent shrinkage during storage, so ice cream is more enjoyable. The best stabilizer has proved to be .2% sodium alginate because this increases the viscosity of ice cream the most. The formula of sodium alginate is C6H9NaO7and it is a combination of sodium (Na) and alginic acid. Stabilizers are a type of emulsifier, which are used to connect polar and nonpolar substances. Ice cream is made of milk, which is made of water, which is polar, and made of fats and oils, which are nonpolar. Emulsifiers are particles which are polar on one end and nonpolar on the other end. In sodium alginate, the positive sodium ions make up the polar end of the emulsifier. The sodium ions experience dipole dipole intermolecular forces with the water in the ice cream. The nonpolar alginate makes up the other end of the emulsifier. The alginic acid experiences London dispersion intermolecular forces with the oils and fats in the ice cream. Once the emulsifier connects the milk of the ice cream with the oils and the fats of the ice cream through intermolecular forces, the separate ingredients combine, thickening the substance as a whole and creating a creamier ice cream that is more enjoyable. Topic 2 - freezing point depression Another important idea in the ice cream process for the best bite is the freezing point. The best ice creams have a lower freezing point than water which allows for a softer ice cream both for eating and getting out of the container. Instead of the fat concentration impacting freezing point, as many people think, it is the sugar concentration and its bonds with water that change the freezing point. Just for some background, hydrogen bonds between water molecules are very strong and prevent most movement of particles. At colder temperatures, the H2O molecules move slower, so the hydrogen bonds, which are a very strong intermolecular force, are even stronger. Since this makes the particles very close together, ice forms since solids are the state of matter in which particles are closest together. When a solute, in this case sugar, is added to water,...

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Chemistry Connections Episode #4  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Shaan and Maharsh and we are your hosts for episode #4 called Chemistry of Nitrous in Engines Today we will be discussing how nitrous works to increase power in engines Segment 1: Introduction to Nitrous Oxide EnginesNitrous oxide is used in cars to help them go faster and get more power out of their engines Commonly referred to as NOS  It is usually stored in the form of a liquid inside a cylinder Engines are powered by fuel and the amount of air that can be compressed More air = more power Nitrous Oxide is a gas injected into the engine which breaks down into Oxygen and nitrogen The oxygen molecule is then used in the combustion process of the engine Nitrous is heavy and needed in high capacity to power an an engine so that's why you see drivers use the nitrous for a short amount of time There are 2 main types of nitrous systems, a wet and a dry system In a dry nitrous system, nitrous oxide is added directly into the fuel-injector and causes an increase in oxygen levels In a wet system, N2O is added to the fuel using a special nozzle that regulates the amount of nitrous in the fuel The wet nitrous system is more prone to backfires, or flames shooting out of the exhaust.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind N2O EnginesChem topic 1: Combustion rxn/Exothermic rxn Air is compressed and ignited in an engine, which drives a piston and powers the car N2O allows for more oxygen to enter the engine, this increases the amount of fuel that can be let in More oxygen = more fuel = more power  As the nitrous oxide decomposes and is injected, it releases nitrogen and oxygen into the engine This means that more oxygen is present to enter the engine and become part of the combustion reaction Chem topic 2: bonds breaking/bond strength Energy is required to break apart bonds The O atom in the N2O has a strong bond to the N2  Lots of heat is required to break these bonds More heat is released when the bonds are broken This means that the reaction is exothermic The molecule N2O is a polar molecule that has covalent bonds Chem topic 3: redox rxn/nitrous oxide is an oxidizing agent  Nitrous is an oxidizing agent This means that it is reduced Gains electrons The reaction that takes place in the engine is a redox reaction This means that electrons are transferred from one particle to another The decomposition of nitrous oxide is a redox reaction and the combustion reaction is also a redox reaction Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWe both watched all the Fast and the Furious movies and were interested on how nitrous increases a cars top speed Nitrous is an important part of the franchise as it allows the racers to use it to their advantage to beat the competition This topic will allow us to better understand the chemistry behind some of our favorite movies and moments from TV Understanding how nitrous impacts the engine, and what makes it work, may help us to better understand certain aspects of our own cars It's important to us because it allows us to use what we learned in chemistry and apply it to real life Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://www.carpart.com.au/blog/educational/how-does-nitro-boost-nitrous-oxide-work-in-cars#:~:text=The%20Chemistry%20behind%20Nitro%20Boost,average%2C%20the%20power%20output%20increases.&text=Air%20allows%20a%2012%25%20lower,to%20that%20of%20nitrous%20oxide (https://www.carpart.com.au/blog/educational/how-does-nitro-boost-nitrous-oxide-work-in-cars#:~:text=The%20Chemistry%20behind%20Nitro%20Boost,average%2C%20the%20power%20output%20increases.&text=Air%20allows%20a%2012%25%20lower,to%20that%20of%20nitrous%20oxide).  https://www.carthrottle.com/post/engineering-explained-how-nos-works/...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #6Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Kristen McDonough and I am your host for episode #6 called the chemistry of Fireworks. Today I will be discussing what a firework is composed of and how they give us a colorful display in the air.  Segment 1: Introduction to FireworksWhat is a firework made of? Fireworks are composed of 3 different components; oxidizers, fuel, and color. The components of a firework are located in an aerial shell. The shell is launched into the air with black powder. Time fuse located inside the shell which causes the explosion of the shell in the air to be delayed. Effect pellets located inside the shell determine the characteristics of the firework. Color is determined by how different elements react with the heat from the explosion.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind FireworksOxidizers are oxygen rich salts including potassium nitrate/perchlorate and strontium nitrate.  Nitrates (NO3-) are used for the initial upwards thrust. Not all of the oxygen gas is released which results in a slower combustion. The most common nitrate is potassium nitrate, which decomposes to potassium oxide, nitrogen gas, and oxygen gas. Chlorates (ClO3- ions) release all of the oxygen atoms in the form of oxygen gas but are highly unstable and are not commonly used in fireworks. Perchlorates (ClO4-) are often used instead. They release all of the oxygen atoms in the form of gas but are more stable. Lewis dot structure reveals that chlorates have a lone pair electron bonded to the central atom, whereas perchlorates do not, explaining the difference in stability.  The oxygen gas goes through a combination reaction with reducing agents such as sulfur and carbon otherwise known as the fuel. The fuel is a source of electrons, and in the reaction of oxygen gas and sulfur, sulfur dioxide is produced. The reaction is exothermic due to the greater energy released when the covalent bonds of the products are formed, resulting in the release of gas and heat causing the firework to explode  The color of the fireworks are determined by the metal cations in the salts in the effect pellets. Copper oxide produces blue, Strontium chloride produces red, Sodium silicate produces yellow, Calcium carbonate or nitrate produces orange, Barium acetate produces green.  Salts are used because they are easier to disperse and they’re less reactive compared to metals.   The different metals have different amounts of electrons in their outer shell. When they react with energy in the form of heat, the electrons jump from the ground state to the excited state. The electrons release energy in the form of light when returning from the excited state to ground state, and the amount of energy they release determines the color. High energy released results in short wavelengths and a more blue violet color, whereas low energy released results in longer wavelengths and amore red orange color.  Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsEvery fourth of July my family and I watch a fireworks display on the beach and we always have a lot of fun. Most people love the joy that fireworks give, so learning the chemistry behind fireworks has allowed me to connect my favorite holiday to chemistry.  Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPHegSulI_M (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPHegSulI_M)  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnA-rH1jwKA (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnA-rH1jwKA)  http://www.scifun.org/CHEMWEEK/fireworks/Fireworks2017.htm (http://www.scifun.org/CHEMWEEK/fireworks/Fireworks2017.htm) ...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #19Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Jayson Shin and I am your host for episode #19 called Advil, Aleve, Tylenol- There’s Chemistry Behind Them All. Today we will be discussing how pain medicines function and what they do to inhibit pain on the molecular level. Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of Pain MedicineWhen you bruise your elbow, pull a muscle, or just downright feel sick, what’s your number one instinct? Well maybe you’d say ice or taking your temperature, but I’m talking about pain medicine. Pain medicine comes in various forms and products such as Advil, Aleve, and Tylenol just to name a few, but they all have the same function- relieve pain and bring body temperature closer to normal.   So let’s start off with what pain essentially is. It’s the body’s natural response to trauma or imbalance, which we feel as physical pain or discomfort. What happens when a part of the body is injured is a chemical known as prostaglandins are released. These prostaglandins essentially bind with various receptors to stimulate different bodily functions, such as proliferating blood clotting at the site of a contusion. However, these molecules are released as a result of chemical reactions in the body that utilize enzymes known as cyclooxygenase. As we know, enzymes serve to function similar to catalysts in that they can either lower activation energies for reactions or provide quicker, alternative pathways for reactions to produce prostaglandins. Now where pain medicines come in is they bind with the cyclooxygenase enzyme in order to inhibit it from accelerating reactions to produce prostaglandins. As a result, our body’s response to pain is decreased.   Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Pain MedicineNow let’s really think about it. When you first think of pain medicine, you most likely think, “Oh I’ll take a pill and it’ll lower my fever” or “Oh my arm’s gonna feel better after I take a few pills of aspirin.” However, we never know why it works or think about how the pain medicine makes these changes to our bodies. So we’ll look at aspirin for example. You take an aspirin and it kicks in in about 15 minutes, and your symptoms of illness or pain from an injury decrease a bit. How does this happen? Aspirin binds with the enzyme cyclooxygenase in the body. As a result, the enzyme is occupied by a different species, and therefore cannot react with other reactants to produce prostaglandins. Let’s look at what the aspirin actually does to inhibit the production of prostaglandins.   As we all know, enzymes are a form of catalyst that help to proliferate the rate of reaction. In inhibiting the function of enzymes, by occupying them, less substrates are able to reach essential activation energy in order to undergo a reaction and create the prostaglandins products. What occurs in a reaction to produce prostaglandins is the cyclooxygenase enzyme binds with arachidonic acid substrates. As a result, the strength of the arachidonic acid bonds are altered in a way that they become weaker. Therefore, the activation energy required to carry out the reaction is lowered, and more substrates reach sufficient activation energy that way. When these cyclooxygenase enzymes are occupied instead by aspirin molecules, they are unable to accelerate the reaction to produce prostaglandins, and therefore, our body has less of a pain response. Aspirin’s chemical formula is C9H8O4. At the end of an aspirin molecule, there is an acetyl group with a chemical formula of CH3CO. This portion of the molecule is what bonds to the cyclooxygenase enzyme in order to inhibit it from reacting to produce prostaglandin molecules. Now cyclooxygenase is a large, very complex lipid molecule that consists of a tremendously large carbon chain. What is important to...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #17  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Samhita and Hana and we are your hosts for episode 17 called the chemistry behind coffee. Today we will be discussing how chemistry affects the production of coffee.  Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry Behind CoffeeCoffee is indigenous to countries such as Ethiopia, Brazil, India, Vietnam, Mexico, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Coffee beans came to be through a story of an Ethiopian goat herder named Kaldi. When the goats he took care of started to wander, Kaldi found them consuming red berries they had found, Kaldi then gave these berries to a local monk to find out what it was. The local monk gave the berries to religious individuals who found themselves with more energy after consuming them. This was then used to keep people from falling asleep during evening prayer and was later found to be coffee beans. Coffee consists of beans originated from Coffea Arabica, which actually makes up 75% of the world’s production of coffee. The cultivation and trade of coffee began in the Arabian peninsula and soon started to become popular in the homes of those in the Middle East. From the Middle East, coffee spread to other countries in the 16th century to countries such as Persia, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. Flavored coffee was introduced when regular coffee was introduced in the mid 15th century. Middle Easterners would often blend coffee with different nuts and spices to enhance the flavor. Coffee is harvested in almost every tropical country within 1000 miles of the equator. Out of the 70 species of coffee that exist, only 3 are cultivated, meaning their beans are either raw, roasted, or whole for the making of coffee. During the roasting process of coffee beans, they undergo a chemical reaction introducing about 800 compounds, ⅓ of which make up aromatic compounds.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chemistry Behind CoffeeAs the beans go into the roaster, there is a decrease in temperature with the reaction being endothermic, meaning it is absorbing energy and that energy is used to evaporate water. Le Chatelier's Principle is used to explain how, once a reaction is at equilibrium, it can be stressed by changing variables in which case it is no longer at equilibrium. The reaction will shift to undo the stress placed on the reaction. We can use Le Chatelier's Principle to support that considering there is a decrease in temperature as the beans go into the roaster, the tendency of the reaction will be to go towards the side where there is no heat, which is the product in this case because the reaction is endothermic, meaning the heat is located on the side of the reactants. The result of this is that the reaction will want to increase the temperature because of that disturbance to return the reaction to a state of equilibrium. The bitter taste of coffee is produced during the roasting process. Heat and atoms have the ability to change the flavor of coffee while it is roasting but the biggest player in the staling of coffee is oxygen. When a solution comes in contact with oxygen it changes the molecular structure. Oxygen pulls away electrons from the other molecules. Since there are an uneven number of electrons, the molecules become unstable. They then begin to react with other molecules around them and this is an example of an intermolecular force called covalent bonding. Covalent bonding occurs between polar molecules that share electrons unequally. It is also an example of an intermolecular force, which is a force that holds molecules together and covalent bonding is one of the stronger ones. Coffee goes stale and reduces the aroma or flavor of coffee. This process doesn’t have to happen with the air that’s being trapped in the coffee machine but it can happen with the water that’s added to the ground coffee. Also, Oxidation occurs more at a high temperature. This is relevant when talking about the staling of coffee. The reason behind

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #8  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Barron Brothers , my name is James Huang and we are your hosts for episode #8, The Chemistry of Acid Rain. Today we will be discussing why acid rain is so harmful and its effects on the city and the ecosystem. Segment 1: Introduction to Acid RainAs the world population continues to increase, the resources required to maintain this population also increase, including factories to make products for the consumer, cars for transportation, and food. However, many do not consider the environmental implications just by living in today’s world as our environmental situation continues to decline. One of these effects is the increase of acid rain due to the amount of pollutants released by industrial processes and traditional power plants. Acid rain is rain mixed with pollutants that lower the pH of the rain. A weak acid is an acid that dissociates little in water, versus a strong acid that dissociates almost completely. Ka values measure how much an acid dissociates in water. For weak acids, Ka<1, and Ka>1 for strong acids. A buffer is a solution made up of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists changes in pH. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid RainNon-polluted rainwater is slightly acidic (pH=5.6) because the evaporated water reacts naturally with the carbon dioxide in the air, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then dissolves into hydronium ions (H3O+) and its conjugate base (the negative ion dissolved in the solution - in this case, HCO3-). In the case of carbonic acid, there is still a hydrogen atom available in the conjugate base of what we call mechanism 1. With this, HCO3- reacts with water again in the second mechanism. Here are some reactions to show you what we mean: Pollutants from factories and car emissions contain gaseous sulfates and nitrates, which react with the evaporated water as well in reactions similar to carbonic acid. Comparing the Ka values of the acids, we can see the effects of each additional pollutant on the acidity of the acid rain. As the Ka value increases, the amount of dissolved acid particles increases, lowering the pH of the rain more. The Ka values of HNO3 and H2SO4 are relatively high compared to relatively low ones, such as H2CO3. Since CO2 is present naturally in the air, this explains why rainwater is slightly acidic. However, nitrates and sulfates are a result of unnatural pollution, such as from factories and fertilizers. Because of these Ka values, H2SO4 and HNO3 reduce the pH even further and have a greater effect than H2CO3, as the pH of acid rain ranges from 4.2 to 4.4. Also, the pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that the difference in acidity between water (pH=7) and rainwater is much lower than that of rainwater to acid rain, even if the pH difference is smaller. In addition, car and factory pollution forms additional CO2, forming more H2CO3 and decreasing the pH of acid rain further. Acidic rain also reacts with building materials, such as limestone, aluminum, and steel, causing corrosion. Limestone (CaCO3) reacts with sulfuric acid to produce calcium sulfate (CaSO4), carbon dioxide, and water. Therefore, the sulfuric acid in acid rain strips away at the calcium carbonate, leading to faster weathering compared to normal rain. This is very problematic, as limestone is used in both cement and concrete, so acid rain will have a severe effect on most buildings and structures around the world. In aluminum and steel, a similar process occurs, as various acids react with the metal to produce an aqueous solution, corroding the metal on certain buildings. Since steel is made up mostly of iron (97%), the iron is an appropriate representation of the decay of steel. For sulfuric acid, here are some reactions depicting the process: Since many skyscrapers are made up of steel, this is a problem particularly in cities. Another effect of acid rain is how it takes away nutrients from...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #11 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Lilly Wurtz and my name is Annie Stocks Natalias and we are your hosts for episode #11 called The Chemistry Behind Diamonds. Today we will be discussing the structure of diamonds as well as the main method used to create artificial diamonds: the high pressure, high temperature method. Segment 1: Introduction to DIAMOND STRUCTUREDiamonds are made of elemental carbon and are allotropes of carbon. Allotropes are the same element but with different structures and arrangements in space. Diamonds form covalent network solids. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms with covalent bonds. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons so that the valence shell is satisfied. A repeating pattern forms a 3D network of atoms. “Real” diamonds (made naturally) were formed billions of years ago deep in the earth’s mantle and were brought to the surface most likely by a volcanic eruption. They take very long to form, making them essentially nonrenewable.  Synthetic (or lab grown) diamonds can grow in just one week in a lab. These diamonds are not often used for jewelry but rather used industrially.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind CREATING SYNTHETIC DIAMONDSThere are many methods used to create diamonds. This includes high pressure, high temperature, chemical vapor deposition, detonation of explosives, and ultrasound cavitation. These methods use something called diamondoids, which are very small pieces of diamond. In the High Pressure, High Temperature method, the large amount of pressure needed is supplied by the “press”.  In the high pressure, high temperature method, diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of a press. The press is heated above 1400 °C which melts a solvent metal. The metal then causes the high purity carbon source to dissolve. This solution is transferred to the small diamond seeds and the precipitate grows the diamondoid into a large, synthetic diamond. The reason you are able to dissolve the carbon into the metal is because of the strength of the various intermolecular forces. Adding heat and pressure, adds so much energy that the intermolecular forces are overcome. This causes the particles to separate because the forces holding them together are weakened. These weakened forces in both the carbon and the metal allow the solution to form.  The solute-solvent attractions are stronger than both the solute-solute attractions and the solvent-solvent attractions. This creates an alloy, which is normally a metal dissolved into another metal but it can also be created with carbon dissolved into a metal. This solution becomes supersaturated, meaning that the metal can’t hold any more carbon. The carbon then precipitates in the form of a crystal, growing the diamondoid.  Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsYou can condense a sometimes multi billion year process into less than a week.  Many of the diamonds found in the past and those used today can be dated back to the formation of the earth and being able to recreate something formed by such a profound event as the creation of the planet in a simple lab is amazing.  Even though they have not been widely adopted by jewelers, they look identical to the naked eye. This is because they are chemically identical and are diamonds. This is why using the words “real” and “fake” aren’t accurate. They are both real, one is just lab grown. Because synthetic diamonds are, in fact, “real” diamonds, they will last forever, which is the main allure of diamonds in the first place. Diamonds aren’t a complicated compound but rather the form of a single element. Imagine the fact that graphite and diamonds are the same thing just in different forms. They are incredibly important in industrial settings as well as because of their use in engagement rings and jewelry. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #9  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Scott Hunt and I am your host for episode #9 called Blue light Today I/we will be discussing how blue light affects your eyes. Segment 1: Introduction to Blue lightIntroduce the episode topic Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context Light is an electromagnetic radiation that travels in waves and is a form of energy. The different colors of light is due to differences in wavelength and frequency of the waves. A short wavelength will have a higher frequency which will result in more energy. For example ultraviolet rays is another type of electromagnetic radiation that has a smaller wavelength than visible light and therefore more energy per photon.  Retina.- a light sensitive tissue that when light hits it, the retina sends signals. Cornea- a transparent on the outside of the eye Pupil- the black part of your eye Iris- the colored part of the eye Lens- right behind the iris and pupil Photoreceptor cells- cells in the retina.  The cells need molecules called retinal to sense light and trigger the signals that get sent to the brain Excitation is when photons and the energy from photons is absorbed by a molecule. The molecule is then in an excited state, which is when an electron moves into a higher energy level. A result of excitation can be a reaction Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blue light Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2” Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic. Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode There is natural and artificial. Natural is the wavelengths that bounce off the air molecules and cause the sky to be blue. Artificial l blue light is the light from our phones and technology. Blue light might appear to look white or other colors. Blue light has one of the shortest wavelengths (400 to 450 nanometers) and highest energy. The short wavelengths are not able to be blocked or reflected by the eye’s cornea and lens. This allows the blue light to have direct contact with the retina.  Blue light exposure causes the retinal molecules to go through excitation. The energy from blue light photons is absorbed by retinal molecules which react to form non degradable material known as lipofuscins which is toxic as well as retinal condensation products. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWhat interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share. I am interested in this topic because I use the computer often playing games and doing school work as well as using my phone in my free time. It is important because computers and phones are the future and something everyone uses in their daily lives. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources. https://phys.org/news/2018-08-chemists-blue.html#:~:text=Karunarathne's%20lab%20found%20that%20blue,D (https://phys.org/news/2018-08-chemists-blue.html#:~:text=Karunarathne's%20lab%20found%20that%20blue,D). https://blutechlenses.com/blog/what-is-blue-light/#:~:text=Blue%20light%20is%20a%20color,produces%20higher%20amounts%20of%20energy (https://blutechlenses.com/blog/what-is-blue-light/#:~:text=Blue%20light%20is%20a%20color,produces%20higher%20amounts%20of%20energy). https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/healthy-vision/how-eyes-work#:~:text=When%20light%20hits%20the%20retina,into%20the%20images%20you%20see (https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/healthy-vision/how-eyes-work#:~:text=When%20light%20hits%20the%20retina,into%20the%20images%20you%20see)....

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #7Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Victoria Villagran and I am your host for episode #7 called The Chemistry of Makeup Today I/we will be discussing what exactly is going on in our makeup chemically.  Segment 1: Introduction to Makeup ChemistryWhat is Makeup? Cosmetics that are used to enhance or alter someone’s appearance Lipstick, eyeshadow, powders, and creams They contain water, emulsifier, preservative, thickener, emollient, colour, fragrance and pH stabilisers (buffers) The water dissolves other ingredients, it helps them mix together, acting as a solvent to dissolve other ingredients and forming emulsions for consistency.  Oil and wax help makeup go on smoothly, and is often used to help skin stay soft  Many other chemicals go into makeup. Normally, an emulsifier is included, a chemical that makes oil and water mix together or keeps unlike substances from separating Most makeup has preservatives, as well. These keep the makeup usable longer, preventing the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, which can spoil the product and possibly harm the user; they can be natural or synthetic  Emollients soften the skin by preventing water loss. They are used in a wide range of lipsticks, lotions and cosmetics.  Thickening agents work to give products an appealing consistency from four families; lipid thickeners, naturally derived thickeners, mineral thickeners, and synthetic thickeners. Chemicals, both natural and synthetic, are added to cosmetics to provide an appealing fragrance. Even ‘unscented’ products may contain masking fragrances to mask the smell of other chemicals. Manufacturers do not have to list these individual fragrant ingredients or chemicals as fragrance is considered to be a trade secret. Many types of makeup also have a coloring agent. Any makeup with a color contains a coloring agent. These come from minerals, plants, and even animals. This is why some people have certain reactions to different colors of makeup as they may come from a source that the user is allergic to Ingredients can be naturally occurring or artificial, but any potential impact on our health depends mainly on the chemical compounds they are made of. So Makeup can be Harmful? There is a lot of controversy as hundreds of internet sites relating to potentially toxic substances present in cosmetics and the dangers they pose to the public. These include parabens, aluminium, triclosan, formaldehyde, phthalates, and other possible chemicals that could affect someone’s skin condition or surface Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Specifically LipstickNow let’s go into the chemistry concepts specifically behind lipsticks.  The chemical properties of water have a major role in lipstick Somewhat Universal Solvent: Water is used as a solvent in cosmetics and personal care products in which it dissolves many of the ingredients that impart skin benefits, such as conditioning agents and cleansing agents. It allows for addition for many ingredients in the products, and allows for them to be combined uniformly.  Water is a polar molecule with partially-positive and negative charges, it readily dissolves ions and polar molecules. It is therefore referred to as a solvent: a substance capable of dissolving other polar molecules and ionic compounds. The charges associated with these molecules form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water moleculesWhen ionic compounds are added to water, individual ions interact with the polar regions of the water molecules during the dissociation process, disrupting their ionic bonds. Since many biomolecules are either polar or charged, water readily dissolves these hydrophilic compounds. Water is a poor solvent for hydrophobic molecules such as lipids. Nonpolar molecules experience hydrophobic interactions in water: the water changes its hydrogen bonding patterns around the hydrophobic...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #13  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Tejas and I am your host for episode #13 called The Chemistry of Acid Rain. Today we will be discussing the causes and effects of acid rain and the chemistry behind it.  Segment 1: Introduction to The Chemistry of Acid RainIf you’ve studied chemistry, and even if you haven’t, you might have heard of the term pH. A pH of 7 means the solution is neutral, a pH over 7 means a solution is basic, and a pH under 7 means that a solution is acidic. So, from the words acid rain, you might guess that it means rain that has a pH much lower than 7, and you’d be right — that’s exactly what acid rain is. But how does it form?  Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides (NOx for short) react with water in the atmosphere to form acids. Then, the sulfuric and nitric acids that were formed fall to the ground mixed with water in a process called wet deposition. This is what you probably think of when you hear the words acid rain, but acid rain also includes dry deposition. This is when acids don’t have the moisture to come down as rain, and instead attach to surfaces and form even larger acidic properties. Then, the next time it rains, these particles get washed into the water and travel through the ground, damaging plants and animals and potentially entering lakes or rivers.  While acid rain is a natural phenomenon, as natural sources such as volcanoes also emit Nox and sulfur dioxide. However, most of the time, the problem is man-made. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOx in the atmosphere come from electric power generators, which burn fossil fuels to generate electricity. Cars and other vehicles also emit these gases, and so do oil refineries and other pieces of equipment used in the manufacturing industry.  Because acid rain can harm humans and kill wildlife, it’s important to understand the chemistry behind it. Once we understand the causes of acid rain and why it occurs, we can start trying to limit the amount of sulfur dioxide and NOx we put into the air.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Acid RainSulfur dioxide and nitric oxides are produced by the combustion of fossil fuels. When these gases rise up into the atmosphere, they can react in a few different ways to produce acids.  Two molecules of sulphur dioxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas to produce two molecules of sulfur trioxide. Then, each of those sulfur trioxide molecules reacts with liquid water from cloud droplets to produce H2SO4, or sulphuric acid. This is the acid that then falls to the ground with water as acid rain. Alternatively, 2 molecules of nitrogen monoxide can react with diatomic oxygen gas to produce two molecules of nitrogen dioxide. Then, those two molecules react with water to produce nitric acid, HNO3, and nitrous acid, HNO2.  So we have these three end products, H2SO4, HNO3, and HNO2. What makes these acids? According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, any compound that can transfer a proton, or an H+ ion, to another compound is an acid. As you can see from the makeup of these products, they all have hydrogen atoms ready to be given away. However, two of these products are more important than the other. These are nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Both of these are strong acids; this means they are more stable when they have donated an H+ ion. Strong acids dissociate fully to completion, so when nitric acid and sulfuric acid dissolve in water, they donate an H+ ion to H20 to form large amounts of H30+. This is important because H30+ is what makes things acidic; therefore, when nitric acid and sulfuric acid dissolve in water, they produce highly acidic solutions. This is what makes up acid rain and makes it dangerous.  Now that we’ve talked about how acid rain forms and why the emission of sulfur dioxide and NOx produce highly acidic solutions, we should talk about how this acidity is measured. This goes back...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #3  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mea Allex and I am your host for episode #3 called The Chemistry of Our Bonds with Dogs. Today I will be discussing the science behind why we form attachments to dogs with a focus on the neurotransmitter and hormone known as oxytocin. Segment 1: Introduction to the Molecule OxytocinThe molecule oxytocin functions as both a hormone and neurotransmitter, and it is associated with feelings of happiness and affection. It is also known as the love hormone, and is frequently seen in both romantic and parental relationships. However, it is also a large reason why we feel attached to our dogs. Petting our dogs, gazing at them, or even thinking about them releases oxytocin, leading to feelings of attachment.   For dogs, oxytocin functions similarly; dogs with higher levels of oxytocin tend to be more affectionate and less aggressive. As our dogs are more loving towards us, our oxytocin levels also increase in a positive feedback loop that contributes to a strong bond between the caregiver and animal. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind The Release of Oxytocin and How it Pertains to our Dogs.Oxytocin is represented by the molecular formula C43H66N12O12S2. It is bonded covalently, meaning that the atoms share electrons. In addition to this, oxytocin molecules experience London Dispersion(LD) and dipole-dipole intermolecular forces, specifically including hydrogen bonds. Due to the strength of the hydrogen bonds between molecules, oxytocin is soluble in many liquids, including water. Bringing it back to the topic of animals, just thinking about our dogs raises oxytocin levels. These levels increase even more through eye contact and physical contact with our dogs. So, when we gaze at a puppy and our brain recognizes we’re looking at something adorable, a signal is sent to release oxytocin. Specifically, to release oxytocin, it must be transported from the cell body to the axon terminal and then released from there. This occurs in the hypothalamus, after the trigger of seeing, petting, or thinking about a dog. The process begins when the membrane potential is increased, opening voltage-gated ion channels and flooding that portion of the membrane with positively charged cations. This depolarizes that portion of the membrane. In order to restore its original charge, separate voltage-gated ion channels open and cations are released from that section of the membrane. However, releasing the cations sends them to another area of the membrane, depolarizing that section. This cycle continues until oxytocin has been successfully transported through the membrane and released, at which point the ion channels close and the oxytocin stops being released. This is virtually instantaneous, and after it is completed, we feel the effects of love and attachment to the dog.    The reason for WHY we release oxytocin upon sighting of a dog is due to their physical appearance. With their large head and eyes combined with a small mouth and nose, as well as chubby cheeks, the physicality of dogs triggers the human instinct to be as caring and protective of them as we would a young child. What is the hormone that triggers those nurturing instincts? Oxytocin. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsThis exploration was especially interesting for me because I have two dogs that I adore, and I wanted to know the science behind why we as humans feel the way we do about dogs. Additionally, a significant portion of the world has at least one dog in their household, so it’s a very relevant topic that I believe many people would be interested in learning more about.   I also have a fascination with analyzing our emotions scientifically, so it was intriguing to answer the question of what happens when we see something adorable and feel attachment to it on a molecular and...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #5 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Brian Shen/Xavier Park and we are your host for episode 5 called The Chemistry of Lithium-ion Batteries. Today we will be discussing how lithium-ion batteries work, and how their environment affects them. Segment 1: Introduction to Lithium-ion BatteriesIntroduce the episode topic Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context Lithium Ion batteries are used in numerous applications from mobile devices to electric cars. They are currently the highest energy density batteries that are mass produced. In the past, Nickel Metal Hydride or Lead Acid batteries were common for any application requiring rechargeable batteries.  Sounds like we’re dealing with some complex topics here. Let’s explain them a bit in case our listeners are getting overwhelmed. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Lithium-ion BatteriesHave a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2” Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic. While these batteries might seem complicated, the chemistry behind them is still based on the same concepts of electrochemistry. It’s just like an electrochemical cell with an anode and a cathode.  Lithium ions travel back and forth between the anode and cathode as the battery charges and discharges.  The cell also consists of an electrolyte solution. This solution is usually a solution of lithium salts and a solvent.  Is there any reason why they use lithium ions instead of other elements? Since lithium ions are rather small compared to other elements, a lot of lithium can be stored in a small area which is why Li-ion batteries have such high energy densities compared to lead-acid batteries or nickel MH batteries, both larger elements.  And there’s different types of lithium-ion batteries as well, right? (LiFePO4 batteries) Known for extremely high charge and discharge rates due to their pool passed ion storage Many more cycles compared to other lithium batteries Used in some car batteries since they are able to provide the huge amount of current needed to start a car They’re clearly quite practical, but one of the most frustrating things is when you go outside on a cold winter day and your phone battery instantly drops 20%. Yeah, why is that?  Because the electrochemical cells rely on chemical reactions to function, it is only natural that the cold weather would hinder their ability to work.  It limits the ability for the forward reactions to take place, therefore reducing the amount of electrons transferring from the anode to the cathode.  For similar reasons, this is why your phone’s battery may seem to be restored when it eventually warms up.  Once it reaches a certain point, the chemical reactions resume taking place, thus continuing the functionality of the battery. So now that we know that heat can help the batteries function, can heat also be detrimental? Yes, actually. These electrochemical cells are sealed, so they are more or less closed systems in some ways. There are therefore pressures inside the cell, and we know from chemistry that heat introduced into a system tends to increase pressure because particle movement becomes more chaotic. Oh, that’s a bit concerning, because batteries heat up by themselves during use. That explains why batteries have limits on how much current can flow through them. Usually higher capacity batteries have higher internal resistance while high current cells generally lower internal resistance. When the same amount of current is being drawn from a cell, the cell with lower IR will generate less heat and see a lower voltage drop. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWhat interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share. Now I have to ask, why do you know all of this? I am interested in this topic because I build my own...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #20  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Mari Kwak and I am your host for episode #20 called Drug induced Parkinson’s. Today I will be discussing how poorly made “synthetic Heroin” can induce symptoms of Parkinson’s disease in users within one use. Segment 1: Introduction to Synthetic Heroin and Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s disease is a genetically inherited disorder of the central nervous system, which affects body movement. Over the past 8 or so years, outbreaks of induced parkinson's have been found in California, Maryland, Vancouver, and British Columbia.  This synthetic heroin powder containing MPTP is usually either dissolved in water and injected into the bloodstream or snorted. Unlike other effects of drugs which take consistent usage over a period of time, this new synthetic drug has caused irreversible symptoms of Parkinson’s within the first use.  Some symptoms of induced Parkinson’s observed in patients are difficulty moving, rigidity, resting tremor, flexed posture, and loss of postural reflexes. The heroin powder itself, otherwise known as MPPP, does not cause Parkinson's, it's the MPTP that is a byproduct of synthetic heroin that causes Parkinson's-like symptoms.  This background info comes from a CDC article with data from The National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute of Mental Health.   Chemistry time: The chemical compound N-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine, MPTP, is the accidental byproduct of MPPP, a synthetic opium drug.  MPTP itself is not toxic, but when it oxidizes into MPP+ after it breaks the skin barrier, it becomes toxic.  The MAO-B enzyme contained in astrocytes and serotonergic neurons reacts with MPTP in a redox reaction. MAO-B acts as a catalyst, to help facilitate the oxidation reaction of MPTP. First, MPTP is oxidized, by losing an electron, to become the chemical MPDP+. From there, more MAO-B oxidizes MPDP+ into MPP+, by losing another election. The final product, MPP+, is the toxic chemical found to induce Parkinson's.  Why is MPP+ so toxic, you may be wondering? Well… I personally do not know but science considers MPP+ is considered toxic because it kills dopamine-producing neurons, which have a high affinity for MPP+. → meaning that MPP+ and dopamine-producing neurons are attracted to each other. Since they have a high affinity, the dopamine transmitter (DAT) takes MPP+ up to DA neutrons, where MPP+ uses its neurotoxicity to interrupt the complex I respiratory chain. The complex I respiratory chain is responsible for catalysing the electron transfer between coenzymes, which are essential for cells to function normally.  Catalysts, like the complex I respiratory chain, increase the rate of reactions, by lowering the activation energy of the reaction. Since the complex I respiratory chain is interrupted, the electron transfers between two essential coenzymes will happen at too slow a rate for these cells to continue functioning.  When these dopamine-producing neurons cannot function properly, they cause disorders like Parkinson’s  In one autopsy of a drug user, MPTP appears to have destroyed the substantia nigra’s nerve cells located in the center bottom of the brain. The pathway from the substantia nigra to signal the rest of the brain is made up of dopamine using neurons, which are severely damaged by MPP+.  The substantia nigra controls body movement and control so, the destruction of substantia nigra’s nerve cells from MPP+ causes the patient to lose body control and struggle with body movement.   Defects in this area of the brain are seen in both Parkinson’s patients and drug users who ingested MPTP.   The chemical reaction that destroys nerve cells after MPTP is ingested with synthetic heroin, is responsible for inducing Parkinson's-like symptoms in drug users.  Segment 3: Personal...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #10  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Finnian Mayer and I am your host for episode #10 called Building a better burger. today I will be discussing how chemistry can be used to create the best possible burger.  Segment 1: Introduction to BurgersOne of the quintessential fast food items, the burger has transcended its humble origins to become an absolute staple in the food scene, being served everywhere from McDonalds to Michelin starred restaurants. And while almost every burger shares a similar base of characteristics, having a top and bottom bun with a beef, chicken, or vegetable based patty in the middle, burgers are the ultimate customizable food, with choices that can be made on every inch of the burger, creating a unique experience tailored to an individual's tastes and preferences. While I will certainly not claim to make the best burger in the world, nor even the best burger I have ever had, I have come up with a recipe which I believe that I, and hopefully others, will thoroughly enjoy. I have always been a fan of spicy food, so my burger will have homemade mayonnaise flavored with calabrian chillies ( a pickled italian chili) and black pepper. To balance the spiciness and richness of the mayo, I will also add a tangy slaw to the top of the burger. The burger itself will be made of dry-aged ground brisket, while the bun will be a toasted brioche roll.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind BurgersMayo:  In order to get the best and most flavorful Mayonnaise, it is best to make your own. And, although it might initially seem like a difficult food to create, it is really only two ingredients which come together in a simple emulsion.  An emulsion occurs when two normally immiscible substances, such as oil and egg yolk, see a reduction in their surface tension allowing the substances to mix.  In cooking, emulsions require agitation, such as why oil and vinegar dressing must be shaken to mix it into a homogeneous substance.  For mayonnaise, the oil must be added drop by drop to the egg yolk so as to slowly decrease the egg yolk’s surface tension and gradually begin the emulsion. After every drop, vigorous whisking is needed. Once the emulsion begins, the oil can be added much more quickly.  Slaw:  Another key aspect of a burger is the slaw which tops the burger itself, made up predominantly of acid (rice wine vinegar and lemon juice) and vegetales (cabbage and radishes) and fruit (pineapple).  Even though it wouldn’t really be possible in the first place, a burger topped with only acid would be too strong and ruin the taste of the burger.  Topping a burger with raw cabbage would also not achieve a desirable effect, as it would be too plain and alkaline, having no taste to enhance the burger.  Cabbage has the added property of serving as an acid-base indicator when it is juiced, turning red when an H3O+ is attached and yellow when an OH- is attached. This is due to red and purple cabbage having an Anthocyanin molecule. Beef:  Dry Aging  One of the ways to enhance the burger itself is by dry-aging the meat before grinding it.  For our burgers, we will use brisket as it is natural around an 80% protein 20% fat ratio, which is perfect for a rich, smash style burger that we are going for.  Brisket is normally around 75% water when it is first butchered, and while water is an important part of beef, too much water results in a weaker Maillard reaction and less flavor.  To combat this hurdle, we will dry age the brisket before grinding it. Dry aging is the slow process of hanging beef or leaving it on a rack for weeks in order to reduce the water content of it through slow evaporation. As the beef’s temperature slowly rises in the temperature controlled dry aging room, water evaporates off of the surface of the beef.  Cooking: Maillard reaction The Maillard reaction is the browning

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #16  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Saarim Rizavi and I am your host for episode #16 called The Chemistry Behind Bad Habits. Today I will be discussing everything there is to know behind the formation of bad habits. I’ll first be going over exactly what habits are and more specifically what a bad habit is, and I’ll also be giving a brief description into why bad habits are formed in the first place. Afterwards, I’ll dive deep into the actual science behind habit formation which consists of topics mainly from neuroscience and as a result, chemistry which is foundational for neuroscience. In this segment, I’ll also be discussing the involvement and function of different parts of the brain in habit formation. Finally, I’ll be sharing my own personal connection to negative habits and why this topic really interests me and why the field of neuroscience and neurobiology and neuropsychology interest me as a whole. Let’s get started! Segment 1: Introduction to Habits & Habit FormationThere are many ways you can define habits but the generally agreed upon definition is that they are rituals and behaviors that are performed automatically, allowing us to perform activities without thinking about them. They are actions that you do without having to decide if you want to do them each time you commence the action. Oftentimes, you don’t even really realize that you are doing that particular action; it just kind of happens and you don’t really know or understand why. Let’s first understand the concept of good and bad habits because the title of this podcast is, the chemistry behind bad habits so what do I mean by bad habits? By bad habits, I mean habits that are harmful to your mental and/or physical health. The most common ones are for sure smoking, drugs, excessive viewing of your phone or other electronic devices, drinking alcohol often, and eating more than you’re supposed to. Even things like procrastination, drinking coffee, and swearing are considered bad habits. Let’s use the excessive viewing of your phone example. When many people wake up, the first thing they do is go on their phones and start browsing instagram, or youtube, or text messages and it’s kind of like a ritual that is done every morning. You just do it without really thinking about why you’re doing it and so it is a habit. It is a bad habit because viewing your phone a lot results in eye strain, possible neck pain, sleep problems, and I won’t get into this, but social media is known to affect mental health in negative ways. So, in general, how does something like this become a habit, especially if it is affecting you in a negative way? Most psychologists go to the habit loop to explain this and will say that this neurological loop underlies all habits. The loop consists of a cue, a routine, and a reward. A cue is basically anything that triggers the habit by reminding you of it or initiating it. Cues can be a location, a time of day, an emotional state, and more. The cue tells our brains to go into this automatic processing mode or this routine, the routine being the actual habit. The habit, the first several times it is done, is done consciously and you choose to do that action but over time as a result of the reward, it becomes automatic. It is known as a routine because whenever a cue triggers the habit, you start following this routine that your brain has developed. The series of actions that make up the routine is the same or very similar every time the habit is unconsciously put into action. The reward provides positive reinforcement for the desired behavior, making it more likely that you will produce that behavior in the future. Once your brain associates a behavior with a reward, you begin to develop a craving for that reward which can become an addiction.Your nervous system is continuously monitoring which actions satisfy your desires, even if they affect you in a harmful way over time. Many...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #21Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Alex Scott and I am your host for episode #21, Cookware Chemistry and Glowing Glass. Today I will be discussing the history and chemistry behind uranium glass. Segment 1: Introduction to Uranium GlassIntroduce the episode topic Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context So today we’re talking about uranium glass, but we have to start much more in the abstract There’s a few different terms used to describe the glass I’m talking about: Depression glass: produced from 1929–1939, often clear or colored translucent machine-made glassware distributed free, or at low cost, in the United States and Canada around the tim e of the Great Depression. Elegant glass: Depression glass that was at least partially handmade, had a cleaner finish, and more vibrant colors, same time period Uranium glass: glass which has had a uranium metal oxide added to a glass mix before melting for coloration Vaseline Glass: uranium glass of a yellow or green translucent color Generally, uranium glass can be identified by shining blacklight on it, as it will fluoresce a bright green Context & History The oldest recorded use is at least 79 AD, in a yellow piece of glass in a Roman mosaic, but it became most popular in the mid 19th century Generally, the most recognized industrial uranium glass producer is Austrian Franz Xaver Riedel He named the 2 colors annagelb and annagrun, for his wife Anna & the German words for yellow and green. Produced variety of items, worked in modern day Dolni Polubni, Bohemia By the 1840s, many other European glassworks began to produce uranium glass items and developed new varieties of uranium glass In the US, Most glassware was made in the Ohio River Valley, where access to raw materials and power made manufacturing inexpensive It was commonly used as a coloring agent for green American Depression glass during the early 20th century Use in the US stopped partway through WWII when the US confiscated uranium supplies  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Uranium GlassHave a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2” Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic. Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode Why was uranium oxide used to make the glass green? Metal oxides make glass different colors Why?: reflect a specific wavelength and absorb all the others Why does it fluoresce under UV light? Takes the energy from ultraviolet light Excites molecules, so in order to bring electrons back to lower energy state, it releases a photon of light Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsInterested because: my parents are avid antique glass collectors My parents especially love green Depression Glass I wanted to know what made it that color Tested my own cabinet to see what was and wasn't uranium AND MOST OF IT WAS It’s strange that radioactive materials were so popular for cookware Stranger that I’ve eaten off of it on holidays and family gatherings The history is so strange Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_glass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_glass) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_glass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_glass) https://dustyoldthing.com/uranium-glass-spotlight/ (https://dustyoldthing.com/uranium-glass-spotlight/) http://www.glassassociation.org.uk/sites/default/files/WEBSITE%20Uranium%20Glass%20website%20%282%29.pdf...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #1Welcome to Chemistry Connections, we are Joe Jacobs and Kate Jackson and we are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Beignets. Today we will be explaining the chemical process behind making beignets.  Segment 1: Introduction to BeignetsFrench settlers brought beignets with them as they migrated to the eastern coast of Canada in the 17th century. These settlers were then forced by the British to move and many settled in Louisiana. These settlers brought their cuisine, as well as their language, with them as they migrated south. Today, beignets are most associated with the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana.  Beignets are a type of doughnut and usually covered in powdered sugar. The process of making beignets is somewhat intensive. It begins with making a dough and then allowing the dough to sit for 2 to 24 hours. Then the beignets are fried in oil and then covered with powdered sugar.  Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rising, Texture, and Flavour in BeignetsSo when we are making the dough, yeast and leavening agents are the foundation of baking. Without these types of ingredients, you wouldn’t be able to have bread or beignets, but you would sort of get like bricks of flour. Leavening agents, or ingredients that make the beignets or whatever you’re making rise, participate in chemical reactions during various steps of the baking process. Yeast, for example, transforms any sugars in the dough into carbon dioxide gas and ethanol which is a type of alcohol. The carbon dioxide that is trapped in the dough expands during the rising and resting process which makes the dough increase in volume, and the alcohol produced by this fermentation reaction evaporates during the frying process. I wanted to point out that yeast is a living organism. You have to activate the yeast when you make the beignets and make sure to keep the dough at a warm room temperature in order to make the yeast work quickly, but not too quickly to increase the yeast’s sensitivity to acids in the dough and slow down the fermentation reaction. Essentially, fermentation is primarily responsible for the holes and the flavour of bread. Flavor inside the bread comes from the alcohol and other compounds produced through fermentation. Another notable reaction that occurs in the dough is aerobic respiration. This occurs in the mitochondria of the yeast cells and performs until the limiting reagent, diatomic oxygen, is used up. Then fermentation occurs, also known as anaerobic respiration. Both reactions produce carbon dioxide so they both contribute to the rise of the beignets. Equation for fermentation: C6H12O6 (glucose) 2C2H5OH (ethanol) +2CO2 (carbon dioxide) Equation for respiration: C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) 6CO2 (carbon dioxide)+ 6H2O (water)  In addition to these important chemical processes, one thing I found is that kneading the beignet dough adds air into the dough and speeds up the respiration process. This leads to a faster rise but less flavor because ethanol is responsible for flavour and increasing O2 in the dough only speeds up the respiration reaction. We are gonna make some beignets this weekend and for ours we will be doing a slow rise with no kneading, and this is just so that we can get the most flavor from the dough and also kenading is annoying. Kneading also develops gluten strands in the dough which can make the beignets tough which is the opposite of what we want. For a little bit more chemistry, if we were to knead the dough, O2 would be added to the dough which would increase the rate of the respiration reaction. This is because there are many molecules of glucose in the dough and the addition of O2 molecules leads to increasing collisions between glucose and oxygen. More collisions leads to a higher rate of product formations because of a higher chance of molecules colliding with sufficient energy and the required positioning. So those are some of the...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #12Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Jiya Pandit and my name is Olivia Kim and we are your hosts for episode #12 called the chemistry of art restoration and conservation. Today we will be discussing how many art pieces have been fixed and preserved through the application of chemistry concepts. Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of maintaining and fixing art piecesWhen you enter an art museum, you may forget the many efforts of artists, conservators, and even scientists behind the impressive masterpieces. Just as the paintings are something to marvel at, the meticulous process behind restoring and preserving the art works is just as fascinating. While the process of fixing art may appear to just consist of applying new layers, laboratory methods - some of which we have explored and learned about in AP Chemistry - are employed to ensure the best materials and techniques are being used to repair the artwork. Although the techniques used to restore and conserve art can be very similar, there is a key difference between art restoration and conservation. Art restoration refers to the process of fixing an object so that it returns to its original condition or appearance, while art conservation refers to the process of preserving an artwork with the intent of preventing any further deterioration or discoloration. Art conservation was first introduced during World War 2 due to the findings of undamaged works from Michelangelo and Vermeer. This was one of the first leading causes for conservation practices after the war. A famous example of art restoration is of the Sistine Chapel frescoes throughout the 1980s-1990s. However, not all art restorations or art conservation efforts are successful, which is why chemistry and other scientific disciplines have had a greater presence in the field of art. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Art Restoration and conservation.Now that we’ve discussed the historical aspect of art restoration and conservation, let’s delve deeper into how it’s connected to chemistry. I will be covering art restoration, and later, Jiya will take over with art conservation! Topic 1: Art restoration The first part of fixing and maintaining art is the process of art restoration. Certain art restoration processes involve methods we’ve learned about this year, but it really depends on the material used to create the art (you’re going to hear me say this a lot!). A crucial part of art restoration is making sure that the methods employed to fix the respective art piece are with the techniques and mediums used by the original artist. Especially in very old artworks, where the materials are not commonly used or easy to access today, applying scientific methods to art is necessary. To better understand the process, I will be talking about a specific art restoration case. In the restoration of “The Plague in Lucca'' (a painting done by Italian artist Lorenzo Viani), such methods were used. For some more context, Viani’s painting had undergone a restoration process post-WWII, however that was not very effective. Recently, the artwork has undergone another restoration, this time with a more scientific and successful approach.   The restoration of Viani’s painting, as with many other artworks, was a two step process. The first part of the process - which relies heavily on non-invasive techniques - allows scientists and artists to look at the details of the painting, such as the different paint layers and the original colors of the artwork. Images of the painting were taken at different wavelengths, which relates to concepts of electromagnetic radiation we briefly covered this year in AP Chemistry. Since each element produces a different atomic spectrum and emits a unique light when electrons transition between energy levels, the multiband imaging method helped scientists determine what elements...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #15  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Beth Hooks and Emilie Sawicki and we are your hosts for episode #15 called the Chemistry of Happiness Today we will be discussing serotonin and its effects on the brain.  Segment 1: Introduction to SerotoninSerotonin is a neurotransmitter found in the blood, the gastrointestinal tract, and the central nervous system. It acts as a neurotransmitter (substance that nerves use to send messages to one another) and a vasoconstrictor (causes blood vessels to narrow). It helps with stabilizing mood, regulating bowel movements, and allowing blood to clot.  A lack of serotonin in the brain is thought to have influence on mental illnesses including depression, bi-polar disorder, and anxiety. Because it helps balance mood, it is sometimes called the “Happy Chemical”. Neurotransmitters transmit messages between neurons. Neurons are responsible for receiving sensory input from external sources, sending motor commands to our muscles, and for relaying the electrical signals. The interactions between these neurons and chemicals control many bodily functions, including emotional responses. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind SerotoninSerotonin is a molecule that is made up of covalent bonds that connect carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The molecule has 26 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds. Double bonds represent 1 sigma and 1 pi bond. Single bonds represent 1 sigma bond.  Serotonin is also a very polar molecule, and has the ability to form hydrogen bonds between serotonin molecules because of the very polar hydroxyl(OH) groups. Hydrogen bonds occur when a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom is attracted to a very polar oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom on a separate molecule. Due to these strong attractions, serotonin has some interesting properties. It has a melting point of 167.5 degrees Celsius, which, compared to water molecules melting at 0 degrees Celsius, is reasonably high. It has a higher boiling point too, at 416 degrees Celsius. This means that at room temperature, it is solid.   When the covalent bonds are broken down, a byproduct is created. When doctors try to measure serotonin levels, they actually measure the amount of the byproduct created when the molecule is broken down. By using the ideas of stoichiometry, if there are more reactants, in this case serotonin, there will have to be more products, in this case the byproduct of serotonin. So, when someone has abnormally low serotonin levels, it is because they have less measurable byproducts. This is commonly linked to mental illnesses such as depression. Tryptophan is used in the production of serotonin, so not having enough of it will result in decreased levels of serotonin. In the treatment of depression, bi-polar, and anxiety, it is common for patients to use synthetic serotonin. The blood-brain barrier is unable to be crossed by serotonin directly, so the reactants needed to produce it are often used instead in the form of dietary supplements. Synthetic products of serotonin are used to indirectly affect serotonin levels in the brain.  The production of this is similar to how our bodies get serotonin because serotonin is made from the essential amino acid Tryptophan, which our bodies can not produce. In order to make this, the use of enzymes are required which act as catalysts. Tryptophan 5-hydroxylase, an enzyme, is the catalyst for the rate-determining step. Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway and lowering the activation energy of the reaction. In the biosynthesis of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), energy is required to break apart the covalent bonds within the tryptophan reactant.  Since covalent bonds are very strong and difficult to break, a large amount of energy is required for the reaction, so fewer particles have enough energy to proceed through the...

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #18  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is JACQUELINE SUN and I am your host for episode #18 called The Chemistry of Lake Karachay. Today I will be discussing what is arguably the most polluted and undoubtedly the most radioactively contaminated lake in the world, Lake Karachay, as well as the chemistry behind what made it that way in the first place. Segment 1: Introduction to Lake KarachayThe history behind why Lake Karachay earned its name as the most polluted place on earth is convoluted and widely unknown. Karachay is a small lake less than 1 square mile in area located in Central Russia in the Ural Mountains.  In 1951, near the beginning of the Cold War, the Soviet Union dumped radioactive waste from the nearby, secret nuclear facility Mayak into Lake Karachay. The Mayak reactor was built between 1946 and 1948 in total secrecy from the outerworld. Its purpose was to create radioactive material, primarily plutonium, that would allow the Soviets to build up a nuclear arsenal matching that of the US.  The results of this reactor and many other’s efforts could be seen in the Soviet’s successful detonation of their first atomic bomb in 1949. However, afterward, there was much toxic nuclear waste remaining. Without regulation or regard for safety, the Soviet government directed for the radioactive waste either to be stored in underground tanks or to be disposed of in nearby water reservoirs. Lake Karachay was the closest lake to Mayak, making it the primary dumping point. From this point on, Lake Karachay’s radioactive levels rose sharply. Lake Karachay accumulated 4.4 exabecquerels of radiation after the dumping. That is about 4 quintillion (which is 10^18) becquerels, or 10 billion curies of radiation. For reference, the Chernobyl disaster released over 5 exabecquerels of radiation. However, Karachay was theoretically more dangerous because of the type of radiation it released, Caesium-137, which had a greater radioactive impact on its surroundings. In 1990, it was reported that standing by the shore of Lake Karachay for just less than an hour would provide enough radiation to kill you. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Lake KarachayWHAT IS RADIATION? Radiation is clearly a highly deadly and complex process. It all centers around nuclear chemistry, or chemical modifications made directly to the nucleus of an atom.  Nuclear reactions are different from chemical reactions in that chemical reactions really only involve changes and transfers in electrons, causing chemical compounds to be formed or rearranged. Nuclear reactions center around changes in the protons and neutrons located in the nucleus, which have the potential to release significant amounts of energy. When the number of protons is changed, the element is changed from one to another. When the number of neutrons is changed, the element remains the same, but an isotope is created. These changes are called transmutations. Transmutation is often spontaneous, or thermodynamically favorable, because nuclei naturally seek stability, or lower levels of potential energy. This is a similar concept to the octet rule in chemical reactions, or how atoms seek a full valence shell of electrons to reach their most stable state. Nuclear reactions will occur so that atoms may achieve a certain combination of protons and neutrons that stabilize the nucleus.  Therefore, an unstable nuclei may release protons and neutrons, leading to its decomposition and the formation of a different nucleus. This process is known as radioactive decay, or radioactivity. The often large quantities of energy released during this time is called ionizing radiation, and it is in the form of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays, with the degree of penetration and strength increasing from alpha to gamma. It is important to note that radioactive decay reactions are first order reactions. This means that the reaction

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Chemistry ConnectionsEpisode #0  Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Nick Johnson and I am your host for episode 0 called Welcome to Chemistry Connections. Today I’ll be talking about Chemistry Connections, where it came from, and what listeners can expect.   Segment 1: Introduction to the history of Chemistry ConnectionsI teach AP chemistry at hvchs and this podcast is part of a class project that I've been doing for a long time. Each episode is completely student researched, recorded, and edited. This podcast is all about highlighting the chemistry that can be used to explain and understand our lives, the universe and almost everything.   Literally pick a topic and I can guarantee there is some chemistry at work there  Traditionally has been a research paper, but now updating to accommodate changing world and hvspn.com Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind “Chemistry ConnectionsSome possible topics you’ll hear about include the chemistry behind art, history, food, products, business, biology, and physics, etc. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsThis is what attracted me to teaching chemistry and it’s how I like to end my ap chemistry course.  Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit http://www.hvspn.com (www.hvspn.com).  Sources:None Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired