WaterCooler Neuroscience: Recent Episodes
Wilf Nelson
A podcast that opens up brain science labs and teaches professional scientific techniques to everyone
WaterCooler Neuroscience is continuing our episodes talking about the most interesting papers from the recent NIH confernece which Jordana Adler attended. We are talking about which signals in specific the amygdala is firing at when PTSD patients are exposed to an array of fearful stimuli and how this kind of experiment can only be done in certain laboratories. We also discuss how our brain's connectivity changes as we get older and how that effects healthy ageing particularly for those under and over 50 years old.
If you would like to see the poster Wilf and Jordana discuss please use the links https://brainmeeting2022.ipostersessions.com/Default.aspx?s=65-A1-05-F6-3A-57-CE-FC-81-7D-BC-46-A8-64-DF-C5, and https://brainmeeting2022.ipostersessions.com/Default.aspx?s=5B-F5-BB-EB-AF-AA-0B-8F-18-2A-9C-72-70-9D-09-19 if you cannot get access please request it from an academic/research institution if possible.
This episode is sponsored by BrainFx. BrainFx Assessments have helped researchers, scientists, and healthcare professionals conduct cutting-edge research and understand the early and subtle effects of brain disorders of all types on a person's ability to function in real life. Find out more at www.BrainFx.com
WaterCooler Neuroscience is back in 2022 with a new format bringing both Wilf Nelson and Jordana Adler. This episode will be bringing you some of the most interesting posters and papers from the NIH conference in America which Jordana attended recently. Wilf and Jordana discuss research into how much can we really assume that rodent and human brains are comparable, especially given billions of dollars of research ever year is done on rodent neuroscience assuming it helps us further our understanding of the human brain.
If you would like to see the poster Wilf and Jordana discuss please use the link https://brainmeeting2022.ipostersessions.com/Default.aspx?s=C8-F2-5A-84-54-F6-70-33-66-52-44-AB-58-13-50-CA, if you cannot get access please request it from an academic/research institution if possible.
This episode is sponsored by BrainFx. BrainFx Assessments have helped researchers, scientists, and healthcare professionals conduct cutting-edge research and understand the early and subtle effects of brain disorders of all types on a person's ability to function in real life. Find out more at www.BrainFx.com
This episode finishes the mini-series about Bethany Teachman's lab by interviewing Bethany Teachman herself to talk about her role in running a professional academic lab
This episode continues the series from December 2021 by talking with Jeremy Eberle about his experience working in Bethany Teachman's lab.
In this episode, Jordana and Wilf talk about what the research into eye movement says about how people are thinking. Why would we want to study eye movement and how does it compare to other methods?
This episode finalises the series of episodes where Jordana Adler interviews Wilf Nelson on his PhD, the thesis that was produced and the journey he had learned to conduct, design and analyse experiments.
Episode 4 brings you the first of Wilf's episodes that were designed from conception by himself. His work leads him to try to understand how inhibition works when we have multiple competing senses active but now we are going further. This episode explores how the brain uses inhibition when it both knows something is coming up and when it doesn't. Wilf's research lead him away from using EEG and fMRI but instead to using a machine called magnetoencephalography or MEG. Wilf talks about why he had to train with this machine and what new data this brought to his expanding collection of research.
The next episode in the series on Wilf Nelson's PhD thesis is brought to you like season 5 of WaterCooler Neuroscience. In this episode, Wilf talks about this first experiment that just didn't work the way he wanted. Jordana and Wilf talk about their experiences running EEG experiments and tests and what experiments that don't work can tell us in science. In fact, this experiment not working the way it was supposed to be even more interesting because it is the same experiment as chapter 2 but this time is done with an EEG cap instead of an fMRI machine.
In this episode of WaterCooler Neuroscience, we discuss Wilf's first experimental chapter of his thesis. This is when a scientist prepares an experiment and in their dissertation will write a chapter to explain and describe that experiment to other scientists. This experiment is looking at how the brain can decide to inhibit or 'turn off' regions that are competing with what we want to be doing. In reality, the brain can't turn anything off, it is more like putting a state where it is just ticking over but ready to go if it needs to. Wilf talks about his experience of designing the experiment while Jordana Adler is the host and brings her insight from the world of neurofeedback.
This episode is a special one because it is the first part of a five-episode series of WaterCooler Neuroscience on Wilf Nelson's, the host's, PhD. In this episode, Jordana Adler from BTAB is the host and interviewing Wilf on his PhD from starting through to all of the experimental chapters of his thesis. The first episode covers a lot of the questions that scientists get asked when they start their PhD and probes what it means to be trained as a scientist. Listen now to learn about Wilf Nelson going from Wilf Nelson to Wilf Nelson, PhD.
Think Fast is continuing its deep dive into Prof. Teachman’s lab to better understand how multiple different research projects are run at the same time and give you a better look at what a proper academic lab is like. In this episode we are talking about some of the data analysis that goes on behind the scenes looks like. For any lab, the analysis of data is just as important as acquiring it but instead of having a set pipeline up and running data analysis can take many forms. We talk with one of the lab’s researchers to see what their day-to-day looks like and how they turn anonymised data into useable findings.
Over December Jordana and Wilf have been talking about what science fiction and more specifically last episode SOMA can show about modern psychology and neuroscience. In this episode, we wrap up this mini-series and talk about how an organic AI would work. What are the bounds of an AI and how in SOMA do begin to see what a very non-human, very hard to understand AI looks like? On top of this Wilf thinks this is one of the best representations of AI to date.
Think Fast is doing a deep dive into the lab of Professor Bethany Teachman who has been on the show before and we are talking about how her lab studies anxiety. Normally on Think Fast, we will talk about only one research project or one show but labs regularly work on multiple projects at a time once they are established. The next four episodes are going to be an expose on what Prof. Teachman’s lab is doing and how it is really very similar to a large commercial lab in its day-to-day running.
Mind-uploading has been one of the great visions of science ever since the boom of cyberpunk science fiction and with it has been the belief that since 'brains are like computers' (they aren't) that moving our consciousness from our brains to a computer is just a matter of moving some software around. In this episode, Wilf and Jordana continue to talk about science fiction throughout December but this time focusing on a game called SOMA. SOMA is a video game that provides an in-depth discussion into mind uploading and according to the hosts is one of the best representations of where it can go right, and very very wrong.
Today’s episode brings you more from the world of computational neuroscience or trying to recreate parts of the brain in a computer. Brains were once thought of as just as a pile of jelly and neurons were neurons, blood was blood and support cells were called glial (for glue). Modern neuroscience has a much more advanced understanding of how the brain is composed of many different types of neurons, glial and microglial as well as complex systems to provide oxygen and nutrients and remove waste. One question however does keep popping up, why do we have so many different types of neurons? Why isn’t one all-purpose neuron the way our brains evolved? In this episode, we talk about how computer models allow us to test tests that would take millions of years through evolution in the lab but a computer can do it in a few days.
Our two-part discussion about how psychologists view science fiction continues and this part is where it gets really weird. Wilf and Jordana talk about how to rank different kinds of AI, how well do movie AI match real-world AI and what happens to psychology when we try to apply it to totally non-human minds?
Brains Talking About Brains is a show where two psychologists/neurosciences talk about science papers in our virtual conference. This week however we are expanding into the other great love that all scientists have, that is talking about science fiction as if it was real. In this two-part discussion, Wilf and Jordana talk about movies and games to discuss what they see as psychologists when they watch some of the most popular science fiction around and what science-based wanderings does that lead to?
Being in the zone is called a flow state in Psychology/Neuroscience, it is the state of focusing on one task to the point that information from the outside world can not even reach our conscious awareness. Team Flow is the very specific circumstance where we are in the zone or in a state of flow but we can specifically not ignore our teammates and integrate the information from other people while keeping that high level of focus. We also learn how professional video gamers are a perfect population for testing this phenomenon which is only a new field to academic study.
Inhibition is a fundamental function of the brain, our brain can't always be on. In this episode we talk with our guest, Dr Corette Wierenga, to better understand how our neurons can be activated in a way that starts to promote the growth of inhibitory connections. This is how our brains balance themselves, it is a method for the brain to work in real-time to alter the strength of different signals and ensure that no one signal gets too strong in the brain.
Tea is an almost universal drink across the world with tea trading having shaped huge portions of history. This episode won't be that grand but the hosts are going to break down a recent study that investigated how heavy tea drinkers have their brain networks altered in both the structure and function over the course of decades of drinking. Wilf and Jordana talk about what you can expect from drinking tea and when claims just need to be left alone
Music doesn't always have to be emotional, music can just be a boring collection of notes and yet that is very rare. Even the beginning melody of a sound can bring about an enormous range of emotions for people, depending on the context, social situations and culture. This episode brings you a discussion of how different music was used to colour the perceptions and moods of participants watching a short video. The hosts unpack what we can tell about how we understand music both with brain data and without, and we also discuss how some brain imaging findings can be very deceptive.
You may not expect the babbling of baby bats to be a topic for a neuroscience podcast but this week we are talking about how social calls in bats go through clear developmental stages without bats ever teaching one another. Bats learn calls, both for hunting, crying out and social calls not through being taught like humans are but by just copying others around them. Our guest Dr Ahana Aurora Fernandez has spent years in the jungles of Panama learning how bats of both genders learn the male bat mating call but then only males use it once they get to maturity. What is behind this mystery? To find out more tune in or check out our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
Everyone knows that humans have two hemispheres and there are famous cases of brains being split and conditions like Alien Hand Syndrome developing which bring forth arguments about if we have two or more personalities in our heads. Birds also have two hemispheres but their hemispheres are less connected than mammals and this leads to unusual differences in information processing. Quails are particularly special in having their hemispheres be more separate in a neurological sense before they mature and after maturity have better hemisphere communication. This means quails can prefer certain eyes, and by extension certain hemispheres, for processing information. Wilf and Jordana attempt to unpack this very confusing line of research
Our brains tell stories about everything, from how we got to work to how we have spent the last decade of our life. In this episode, we are talking about how our brains and more specifically the hippocampus tracks the way that characters in stories move from scene to scene. Brendan walks us through his research and also how we can understand the pattern of activity we see for the main character versus the many different patterns of activity that we find for the side characters in the background. To find out more tune in or check out our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
Crying is a normal human function seen in people all across the world but there is quite a bit of difference in how and when people cry depending on their physiological, psychology, culture and gender. In this episode, we unpack the psychology and neuroscience behind crying to see what the research says about crying, and what is just 'common knowledge'
Hi, Wilf Nelson has just completed his thesis and is taking a short break to complete his PhD. We will be returning with new episodes in October and if you want to let us know if any topics are particularly interesting or important than check out the website at www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk and message us there.
This episode brings the conclusion of Wilf's interview with Dr Bimal Lakhani. Wilf and Bimal focus in this part of the interview on how corporate culture can clash with the scientific method, and how common that can be. They also talk about what the difference is in key skills when working for a university and when working for a company. It boils down to one key concept, soft skills. Find out why in a company lab having well developed soft skills is the key to working well, and it isn't just to play politics.
For the next part of September's releases in the Academia and Industry series, we are talking with Dr Bimal Lakhani. A postdoctoral researcher who was trained in universities but moved to work in a corporate lab. He talks about his experience of moving from the labs he trained into labs that focus on product development and how he views himself compared to the other scientists who are now employed full time by university labs. Bimal is also a senior scientist and is as high up as it gets without being a chief or board member. That means Bimal is the equivalent of your future boss for any scientist looking to make the jump. Wilf, gently, grills Bimal on what it is like to run a corporate lab and how his staff work differently in that environment compared to their PhDs.
Brains Talking About Brains is approaching the topic of pain this week. Jordana and Wilf are looking at a paper where controlled and manageable pain, a small shock to the leg, is controlled not through medication or meditation but instead a simple memory task. How much can we understand the brain's ability to control pain? In this episode, we also look at how it is not just the brain that can have its pain signals altered by doing a memory task but even the spinal cord.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
We bring you the conclusion of the interview with Mohammed Ali and how the business that you start is very unlikely to be the business you are running year on year. We talk about how the development of ideas and projects is very natural for scientists, so why wouldn't it be the same in business? We talk about how to accept the changes from the publicly funded world to the private world and actually the great freedoms that Mohammed sees when you take the plunge.
September is bringing the return of the academia and industry series as many students and academics end their contracts and move on from universities, both voluntarily and due to circumstance. This interview brings you the first part of Wilf's discussion with Mohammed Ali who is an expert in helping scientists take their research and ideas from the lab into corporate ventures. You'd be surprised to hear it isn't that different. You are still the one driving your own work, relying on your intellect and imagination to see things others don't and handling almost everything yourself which really isn't too far away from the standard lecturer's life. Mohammed also explains where those wanting to make the jump need to appreciate the differences. This isn't the usual content of the network but the last year and a half have seen unprecedented numbers of researchers leave universities and this is one of the key options.
There are definitely animals in the world that are conscious and aware, at least we can prove it to the same standard as any other human we can't talk to. There are also some animals, and other creatures from different kingdoms that we are not conscious of, again at least as far as we currently study consciousness. The usual method has been to assume a hierarchy with humans at the top, dogs a bit below, rodents below that and jellyfish even lower. This episode brings to you a recent scientific debate that such a hierarchy may not be wrong but for scientists is probably useless. We talk about the new dimensions of consciousness that are being put forward and how some animals excel in one area but fail in another. We must try to find a better way to understand how animals experience the world and do that as best as we can without using the lens of human experience.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
This episode is the final of the shorts from S4 of WCNeuro. In this episode we are talking with Dr Giulio Rognini about how his work helps us to understand why our limbs feel like ours, why prosthetics even as responsive as human arms don't feel like ours and what we can do to fix that with very safe implants and AI that are no smarter than your phone. Giulio and Wilf also talk about their experiences with presenting ideas in the scientific community and why they don't think the accusations of gatekeeping are automatically correct but that doesn't always mean academia is the most welcoming or nurturing place. They talk about how science has very specific criteria to be useful across the world and that means critical evaluation and defence are necessary.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
In this episode, Jordana and Wilf are diving into the world of experimental brain imaging. The paper of today's episode looked into how people can be scanned by an fMRI, an EEG and EROS (or Event-Related Optical Signalling). All of the scanning methods have their strengths, and at times considerable weaknesses but by using them together we can make new ways to scan the brain. Wilf also talks about his experience in an imaging lab and why scanning people with all these machines at once isn't likely to catch on as the standard method of research but it can offer insights for labs to find budget-friendly ways to study the brain.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
This episode brings you conversations from S4 of WCNeuro that did not make it into the final season. We are talking with Dr Sebastian Musslick on his findings of how mental effort and cognitive limits in humans are probably not best related over to machines. What makes us capable and unique is not a very good model for AI and that means we have to view what we want AI to be in a very different way. Michael J Frank is also back in this episode to talk about how there is a neurological basis for the feeling that earning something yourself is much more rewarding.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
Free Will has been a philosophical debate for as long as philosophical debates have existed and science has weighed in from time to time. Neuroscience really started its proper discussion of if humans are truly free with the work of Libet in 1985, although even Libet was working off earlier work. That research brought into the public mind the question of it the readiness potential, the charging up of your motor system to fire, could answer if humans are free or not. We are not 37 years after the initial study and new research is not questioning if free will is real, or if neuroscience has ways to answer the question but if the readiness potential is the best way to find out. In this episode, we dive into the methods behind the readiness potential and try to see if it is something from an era of neuroscience that we can replace now.
This month is continuing your shorts from S4 of WCNeuro and bringing you a final snippet from Wilf's interview with John Dylan Haynes. We are talking about how to make artificial intelligence we have to define what intelligence even is, to set our goalpost to reach. John knows of a task force that was set to define intelligence and the result they came up with... well, it's interesting. After that Michael J Frank is back talking about how Parkinson's patients have an unusual pattern of neural behaviour which makes it seem like they are simply not motivated. We break down why this is the case in very specific scientific language and why that really isn't the case in every other context.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
This episode has Jordana and Wilf talking about a review paper that wants to 'shift the paradigm' and discuss how children use the executive function, the ability to alter their actions, and where we should be studying to understand that process. This paper however was written in a way that doesn't fit many scientific standards so we will be hearing from Jordana about how this paper can inform clinical studies and open our minds to new ways to think about how thought and movement are linked. On the other hand, Wilf will be talking about how from an academic perspective this theory has problems and there is an issue with vagueness in this paper which makes it much harder to understand from the research science side of Brains Talking about Brains.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
This episode is bringing you shorts from WCNeuro S4 which did not make it into the main episode. We will be talking about how very controlled experiments in the lab do not automatically relate to flashy headlines like airports are going to read your mind while you go through a metal detector. We also talk about how subliminal messaging is one of the weakest psychological tools a scientist can use, but why supraliminal messaging is everywhere and does have any effect on you. That effect is just not that scary. Wilf also mentions a paper by Dr Davinina Fernadez-Espejo in this episode, the following link provides context to that paper and findings https://jme.bmj.com/content/41/7/534.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please head to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk
Today's episode is looking into a paper that studies how our memory builds up the scene around us. It goes without saying that our ability to see is incredible but the mechanics of how our eyes dart around a room, remember details subconsciously and then continue to the next point is the focus of this episode. We are talking about Dr James Kragel's work on this fascinating topic but also talking about how even professional neuroscientists can find new concepts challenging and what both Jordana's and Wilf's backgrounds brought to their understanding of this cutting edge work.
Few professionals require someone to be familiar with how their voice is heard and how people in turn become familiar with a voice than podcasters. Today's guest however is even more of an expert is one of the researchers around the world who study the processing humans do to understand voices. Voice perception and language perception are automatic in humans, even if you don't understand someone's language you can still learn to recognise their voice. You would think that Neuroscience, a field that is decades old, and Psychology, a field that is over a century old, would just have solved the mystery of how the brain processes and familiarises itself with voices but in reality, we are still learning. Cutting edge Neuroscience and Psychology still focus on understanding processes that day to day is the definition of mundane. Listen in to hear how Dr Holmes' work is finding out that voice processing is anything but boring.
With AI being used across neuroscience we find hundreds of different ways to 'use AI'. In Season 4 of WaterCooler Neuroscience Wilf Nelson talked with world experts to find out what modern AI and computational neuroscience is. In that series, we found one of the best ways to use AI is to make artificial versions of our experiments and see if they work when only the models we create are running the show, no sneaky helping hand from nature to get our experiment to come up positive. In this episode of BTAB Jordana and Wilf are continuing that thought by talking about a paper that was first run in mice in a lab and then re-runs in a computer with a simulation to see if the theoretical model scientists said was running the mice brain could do all the stimulating activities. Listen in to what modern-day AI is really doing.
Art is not typically an area of study for Neuroscience and Psychology given the fields' preference for simple experimental stimuli and as little interpretation as possible. Dr Vessel however explores how people experience and are influenced by art using experimental Psychology. We want to better understand not just how people report interacting with Art but then how Art alters their behaviour, thoughts and perceptions in the same way we would test anything else in a professional lab. We bring you Dr Vessel's work on understanding how artwork can inspire people to write stories.
Brains Talking about Brains is not just a show about human or even animal psychology. It is a show about Psychology in all its forms and now that can include AI psychology. AI are not conscious and thinking as sci-fi movies would define them but AI that runs phones, servers and statistics programs do have regular patterns for how they handle information. Those patterns can form the basis for understanding the psychology of a thing and in this episode, Jordana and Wilf are talking about a theoretical paper that tries to explain the weirdness of reported human dreams through a quirk of AI data processing. Because science must be falsifiable Wilf and Jordana set out to see if this theory can be tested with an experiment, if it can be falsified and where that might just not be possible right now.
EEG caps have been around in one form or another for almost a century and have drastically increased the ways that brain science can be done through a cheap, reliable and data rich method. However, EEGs are usually confined to university and hospital labs with arduous sets up nothing like how movies can make EEG experiments appear. Today I am talking with Dr Jyoti Mishra about how her work is taking an easy to use cap and bringing it to schools, outpatients and those in isolated situations so Neuroscience can better understand people who don't fit the usual participant criteria.
To finish off this series of WaterCooler Neuroscience we are talking about why AI probably shouldn't be a general intelligence. General intelligence is what humans have, we can turn our minds to anything we chose and learn new things with success based on how intelligent we are overall. AI does not work like this; an AI is trained to be good at one thing but fail. Look no further than asking a chess expert to make a cheese sandwich versus a chess AI, the chess AI can't even be spoken to. We talk about why many specific AI is probably the best route for the future rather than a general AI that tries to mimic human behaviour. If you aren't convinced consider your phone is already a collection of very specific AI instead of one general AI.
There are things our brains do that are so natural and obvious we don't even notice our brain does it. One of those things is the perception that we have a body, even if you feel pain or that something is slightly off with your body you always perceive that you have a body. In this episode, we are talking about how researchers are working to understand how our brain is constantly measuring our limbs to keep track of what they are and what state they are in and more importantly we are learning how AI can help us replicate those signals in amputees. If you want to see the future of brain-body research and prosthetics then tune in.
In Season 4 of WaterCooler Neuroscience, we have spoken a lot about the abstract ways to use AI to understand the brain. In this episode, we talk with Michael J Frank about a more grounded, clinical use of AI in understanding the study and uses of dopamine across the brain. What is dopamine? What do disorders of dopamine teach us and how can we better understand it in this modern age of neuroscience?
Computational Neuroscience is a toolbox for researchers to use on whatever they want. AI can mean using a basic analysis program all the way to programs that can simulate and create new faces or new models of information. In this episode, we talk with Thomas Carlson about how to build a modern computational neuroscience lab from the ground up.
Even simple phones can tell if they are looking at a face or at least a photo of a face, and that is thanks to developments in teaching AI how to understand the makeup of a human face. This technology however originated in labs as researchers tried to use the enormous data processing capabilities of AI to understand how humans see faces. In this episode, we talk with Nikolaus Kriegeskorte about how his labs use AI to study the many different ways we see images. We also learn about how AI competition works, many AI can be made to do a task but we need to test and understand which is better to make better machines and programs in the future.
Computational Neuroscience has had many massive claims in the future mostly around being able to disprove free will or use AI code to mindread what people are thinking in courtrooms and airports. In this episode, we bring you the neuroscientist who is the basis for many of these claims, and he never said any of those things. We delve into what we can really say using AI about how people make decisions and what they think about by talking with John about his illustrious career.
Burnout is a topical psychological condition but many people in the workplace do not meet the criteria for burnout, according to psychologists. Burnout has a very set definition and while psychology recognises stress, disenfranchisement, cynicism and the desire to leave work.... are any of those by themselves burnout? Jordana and Wilf break down for you how academics define burnout, engagement and how those ideas move through to psychiatric help.
AI are always in the news and regularly credited with amazing advancements in the data processing. AI has become so capable of handling complex data the field of computational neuroscience is now flourishing around the world. This series will talk with experts on computational neuroscience to see how AI and brains are coming together. We start the series with a discussion with John Laird and while he is not a neuroscientist he does make AI from the ground up. John is an expert in making AI and he talks with us about what they can and can't do, what he uses them for in his lab and why he isn't worried about AI trying to kill us all.
Boredom is an incredibly powerful human emotion and drives us to not rest, to try new things and is the power behind our curiosity. Dr Erin Westgate is an expert on what boredom is, how it manifests in our lives and what is it that triggers boredom. If you are interested in this show you should also check out Dr Nick Buttrick's work on S2 EP2 of WCNeuro where Nick talks about his work with boredom which was with Erin a few years ago (https://watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk/wc-neuro-season-two/)
Sponsored by I Know What Scares You.
Jordana and Wilf talk in-depth about a recent neuroscience review of hundreds of papers that show that the biological differences between men and women when it comes to brains are minimal if there are at all. We talk about how size differences can result in false reports of sex differences, how poor study design results in bad results and most important why very complex neuroscience shouldn't be boiled down into one headline. Listen in for our discussion about sex, brains, size and even maths, language and all those things you've been told are different just because of a chromosome.
Sound is caused by vibration, something has to be moving to cause sound so when you are hunting sound is very important because it tells you things your eyes are going to miss. Humans can track sounds, we all know that, but how do we track sounds and what would be the best ways to track sounds? It turns you you need some mathematicians to make your code, some engineers to build a very impressive sound chamber and then psychologists and neuroscientists to make sense of the whole thing. Our guest on this episode walks us through it.
This episode delves into the world of neuroscience posters which are shorthand for presenting research to the academic world. Posters provide a way for scientists to have their work reviewed for a conference but it is not as rigorous as an academic journal. In this episode, Jordana and Wilf are looking at how the neurotransmitter serotonin and varieties of serotonin receptors can alter how people score on professional personality scores. Jordana breaks down her experiences with people who are on the most extreme scores of sensitivity and Wilf talks about how academic personality tools differ a lot from those available both online and for business.
Say you are the kind of person who is trustworthy enough to be given a lab with dozens of research mice. Also, say that you are the kind of person who does good science and tests male and female rats in equal measure to test if chromosomes and sex hormones might cause a difference in how the brain works. Then say you were smart enough to realise some drugs may alter memory. Well if all of those things are true then you are Dr Raul Andero Gali and the guest of this episode talking about how to better understand why certain drugs change the behaviour of mice when it comes to forming memories. This episode in particular talks about neurodiversity, that through these drugs we can understand how male and female brains are different in their structure but that doesn't mean they are different in how they function in everyday life. Curious, then tune in.
Mindblindness, or aphantasia, is the neurological inability to visually imagine anything really. People with mindblindness can imagine and as far as we know have no other cognitive deficits, that being a scientific deficit which just means something is missing not wrong. In this episode, we delve into the topic of mindblindness, why it has only recently been studied and how mindblindness can be seen in everyday life. most importantly we talk about why as psychologists we are totally ok with it.
Alzheimer's is a form of dementia known around the world for its powerful ability to remove personality, cognitive function and your sense of time and space based on the information around you. Alzheimer's has been studied for decades and now with incredible datasets we are using modern AI techniques to better understand that Alzheimer's isn't just one disease, it has many forms and many different progressions through the brain. As part of the toolbox of neuroscientists and psychologists around the world, let's see what AI has to say about Alzheimer's.
Brain-Computer Interface, or using the older term cybernetics, is a field now that doesn't care about implants but instead uses safe machines like EEG and fMRI to study patterns of brain activity that computers can interpret into commands. In this episode, we talk about cutting edge research that wants to know if imaging motor movement the best way to control a machine or can we use our memories and emotions to better effect? If you haven't listened to Episode 6 of Brains Talking about Brains I would recommend it because it provides an introduction to this subject, also see Think Fast Season 2 Episode 21 with Michiel Spape for his work on teaching machines to understand human brains.
Before you think I am talking about human females and this is a discussion of gender or culture, no. This is about females of almost any species around the world from insects to us. Dr Freyberg delves into how the brain uses dopamine and makes sure it doesn't turn into a poison in our brains. Females, however, handle this process very differently from males and we go into what that means for our brains, and why that doesn't mean we see totally different cognition.
In 1997 Cognitive Neuroscience was in its infancy and there was much more about the brain we didn't understand than we do. The goal of understanding how brain waves and neural function linked was the dream of neuroscientists around the world. In this paper, we look at the odd finding which is that when you use EEG it can be very hard to tell if someone is moving their arm or just imagining moving their arm. We talk about how this is a foundational study in the world of neuroscience, its applications even today and how it paved the way for the future.
Bethany Teachman is this episode's guest bringing her expertise in both teaching people how to treat anxiety and her research into the different ways our brain processes anxiety. Along with her, research Bethany talks to our host Wilf Nelson about the differences in anxiety disorders, introspection and health worries. If you ever wanted to know how modern-day clinics view anxiety and what inspires them to try to help then this is the interview you've been waiting to hear. Spoiler alert, the goal is always to make you be the best version of yourself that you want to be.
In this episode, we delve into a topic that is very discussed by Psychology but rarely discussed by Neuroscience. What is dreaming when we are not concerned about the reports of people dreaming, what can we understand from studying the brain instead of the mind and how is memory involved in the contents of our dreams? Ultimately what parts of dreaming are available to scientific study, and what parts aren't and here we talk about how psychologists are ok with that.
Michael Spape is returning but not to talk about deep fakes. Instead, his work on teaching machines how to read EEG data is now being used to allow people to control machines in real-time. Spape walks us through the earliest definitions of cybernetics all the way to the modern Brain-Computer-Interface technologies that are letting people move things with their mind. This episode however highlights the limits of the technology. Spape's work is cutting edge but you might be more than a little surprising what we can do and all the things we can't.
In this episode of Brains Talking about Brains we are talking about state and trait anxiety, are you anxious as a person or just going through an anxious period? What does that do to the brain in the long term and this week Jordana and Wilf are talking about a paper that studies the areas in the brain that develop more brain cells and which develop more connections.
In this episode, I am interviewing Dr Michael Spape on how his work into making AI that could recognise faces because of the different ways humans process faces lead to deep fakes. Michael walks us through how using EEG caps to process the brain's signals when seeing different types of faces generated data that humans cannot understand, but AI can. He tells us how he built and trained these intelligent programs to understand the neural signals behind faces and then what could be done with these completed but limited AI to start making new faces that haven't existed anywhere else. You will have undoubtedly heard about deep fakes, this episode shows you the labs and research that inspired them.
Brains Talking About Brains is approaching the topic of pain this week. Jordana and Wilf are looking at a paper where controlled and manageable pain, a small shock to the leg, is controlled not through medication or meditation but instead a simple memory task. How much can we understand the brain's ability to control pain? In this episode, we also look at how it is not just the brain that can have its pain signals altered by doing a memory task but even the spinal cord.
Smells generate some of the most powerful memory experiences but we don't know why. This episode explores not only why smells do generate such powerful memories but why are they more powerful than other senses? To understand that we need to not only be able to measure the memory centres of our brain but be able to find a way to compare senses which are in many ways incomparable.
In the second episode of the new Brains Talking About Brains Jordana and Wilf are talking about the topic of how new cells that were grown in an adult (rat) brain were actually the cells that control the rest of the memory centres in the brain. Traditional thinking would say that new neurons are controlled and 'educated' by older neurons so these new neurons fit in with how the brain has worked in the past but this episode talks about how we can see very small populations of newly grown neurons running huge areas of the memory centres of the brain involving millions of neurons. At the end of the show, we also discuss what this means for human research since most human imaging techniques are not capable of studying such small groups of neurons in a lab.
Think Fast is a show entirely focused on the brain but it is just taken for granted that brains will grow and form into conscious fully aware people. But how does that happen? This episode brings you Dr. Robert Carrillo and his work in flies to better understand how neurons in the very earliest stages of development learn to link up with each other and why it doesn't really matter what neurons they link up so long as they are of the right class of cell.
Introducing Brains Talking About Brains, a series where WaterCooler Neuroscience host Wilf Nelson and psychologist and practitioner Jordana Adler meet you at their virtual conference to talk about psychology old and new to show you what a psychologist sees. The first episode of this new series is talking about rats and if they have a network formally called the Default Mode Network. In humans this network can do introspection, reflection, daydreaming and many of the most complex and deep tasks which many consider 'the most human'. This network however has also been proposed in rats. What does that mean though? Are rats daydreaming and philosophizing or do we need a psychologist perspective to see how the same kind of network may do very different things in human vs rat brains? Tune in to find out and see what a psychologist sees.
Psychopaths are one of the most dangerous personality disorders that occur in humans and they are famous across the world for both real-life and fictional stories about the dangers of psychopaths. On top of that Machiavellian personality disorder is not quite psychopathy but is a disorder where people will use and hurt others for their own goals. These kind of personality disorders are obviously disorders that we would want to keep away from science-fiction-like technologies of mind uploading and immortality in a virtual world but Michael's work has found out that they are actually the kind of people most interested in getting to live forever in a machine. In this episode, we look at what Psychology can tell us about future technology and where it provides important warnings.
Like many neuroscientists, my experience with the brain is centred mostly around blood, how blood feeds the neurons. fMRI, while an amazing tool, works to understand changing blood flow which we argue is affected by neurons but our understanding of how blood flow works in the brain is imperfect. To better understand the blood, and then the neurons, we need to study the architecture by which the brain is supplied with new blood. You will have seen photos of the brain's arteries at some point in your life but today we are talking about capillaries that are smaller than a millimetre and neurons are never more than a few microns away from a capillary. The trickest with studying something that small is normal microscopes don't cut it, and the usual techniques of electron microscopy involve killing the animal we study. Today's episode is about 2-photon microscopy, a relatively new technique that doesn't require the animal to die and instead lets us study calm, usually peacefully sleeping rodents to understand how their neurons are supplied with blood at the smallest levels.
Jordana Adler is a psychologist and has worked in neurofeedback clinics. In this episode, she brings her expertise to our academia and industry series to discuss what it is like working with neuroscience in the field. Jordana also discusses her choice to not go into academic psychology based on the advice of her parents who are both professors. We are going to talk about her training, the ways she has used neuroscience in her profession and what she is doing now.
Look out for more from Jordana in the new series Brains Talking About Brains coming to the WaterCooler Neuroscience network in May.
For most people the concept of anaesthetic is routine, it is just something that doctors give to people undergoing a medical procedure and everything will be normal again in a few hours. For some people though the injuries they sustain are so life-threatening that the body cannot experience any stress during recovery and a medically induced coma is needed to keep the patient safe. This is common practice in intensive care units all around the world and saves the lives of those who otherwise would not be able to cope with almost any stimulus or activity. This episode is talking about what happens to the brain during that time. How does the brain handle being in an environment where nothing is happening, no TV shows to watch, no streets to walk down or friends to talk to? Our brain craves experience so what can we learn about the brain's response to extended periods of no experience?
Human's process faces almost better than anything else, we can even see faces when there isn't a face there which is called Face pareidolia and why people claim to see faces in the sky or in the sea. Our brains try to see faces everywhere, even where they are no faces. But on occasion this malfunctions worse than just coffee foam oddly looking like a cartoon face and can result in conditions where people can no longer recognise faces or see faces as distorted. Our guest today is an expert on a condition that makes people see faces as distorted but more importantly, this very rare condition allowed Jorge to better understand if we remember faces only based on perspectives we have seen faces in the past or if we store a 3D representation of every face we can remember.
In this episode, I talk to Dr Ashley Juavinett on her book 'So you want to be a Neuroscientist' which covers not only the difficulties, promise and secrets of being a neuroscientist. My interview with Ashley not only covers the topics of her book but also her inspirations and everything she would have added to the book after it was completed. Becoming a neuroscientist is one of the most complex but also diverse scientific paths a person can take in the modern academic world and this book provides an excellent introduction so that not every step you take is blind. For the rest listen to the interview.
Epilepsy is a condition that is most simply understood as causing blackouts and seizures but from a neurological point of view what is happening is a mass activation of neurons with very little control which effectively overloads our sensory and motor centres and can cause unconsciousness as the brain can't fire in the ways that allow for a normal conscious experience. Episodes about epilepsy normally include talking to both doctors and patients on the biology and lived experiences of those with epilepsy. Today we are talking about maths, what is epilepsy without the brain? What can maths show us which other fields can't? This episode explores mathematical neuroscience and the contributions that a chaos mathematician is bringing to the squishy organic world of neuroscience.
Dr Rafiq Huda's work in human decision-making processes have elucidated the process of flexible decision making across rodent and human brains. However, recently Rafiq has risen to the ranks of having his own lab and this means he has spent the last year transitioning from a pure researcher to the joint job of researcher and lab manager. Running a lab is very similar to running a business, just without any products to sell or regular income, and here Rafiq gives his insights into how scientists have to transition into managers handling budgets, not just research projects.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
It is a question in Psychology and Neuroscience how people who are constantly adventurous and rigidly stuck to what they know are both using the dopamine systems found in the midbrain. How can two seemingly opposite patterns of behaviour come from the same source and why whenever a discussion about the brain starts is it always somehow focused on dopamine. Michael J Frank is an expert on the dopamine systems in the human brain and brings his research and decades of experience to help us understand what the dopamine system is actually doing here.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
In this series on Academia and Industry we are moving to the other end of the spectrum and instead of talking with scientists about how they integrate into business we are approaching CEO of the Lark Group and how he works with scientists. Kirk provides insights into his working relationships with scientists and what he thinks are both the best practices for starting a new partnership and how to get the best out of both parties with their different training and background. This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
Mind-wandering or daydreaming is one of the most common activities that happen in a day. It is almost impossible to not eventually have your mind wander off into thoughts about the past or fantasies about the future. In this episode, I interview Dr Julia Kam on her research into mind-wandering and how we can study the major network involved, the default mode network. We talk about what the default mode network does, how we can study it and where the limits of the field are with such a newly studied network.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
Artificial intelligence is used regularly in neuroscientist with programs that are able to process enormous amounts of data and alter their own parameters to 'learn'. AI is even used to identify different objects just through a camera and the applications of visual identification are becoming mainstream with the use of such programs in self-driving cars. The question is how do we pick between AI that seem to work equally at first pass. Well the answer is we show them psychedelic images. To find out why that would ever work tune into this episode of Think Fast.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
For most people, the heights of Professorship and CSO/CEO are dreams for a future year. Today we are talking with Shaun Fickling, a researcher at HealthTechConnex, and one of the researchers who helped with NeuroCatch Inc. Shaun only recently finished his PhD and brings us the insights from someone who spent years in academia and has now entered the ground floor of corporate scientific endeavours. He offers his advice and insights for what the modern PhD researcher needs.
In the second part of my interview with Dr Paul Eastwick, we delve into the idea of compatibility. It is accepted in human culture that when two people choose to be together or are chosen to be together, there is a level of compatibility. We accept we fit better with some people, we don't fit with others, and while perfection is not possible, it is best to find someone who compliments us. This interview is going to knock that concept on the head a little. Machine learning last time poured into what parts of relationship questionnaires really inform us about relationships, and now we are going to be finding out are people compatible when they first meet or does a relationship's success depend on if you become compatible together?
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc., please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
Today's episode is with Dr Paul Eastwick discussing how we can use AI/Machine learning to start to understand the beginning of romantic relationships and why some people start to stay together and others don't. This is a traditionally near-impossible task for humans to figure out, there are thousands of variables that go into two people meeting and forming the relationship they will have and humans are not very good when we have to process lots of variables at once. We get bias, we pick things we want to be important and ignore things we don't like. Machines don't have that problem and machines understand data in very different ways, in this episode we look at how machines process relationship questionnaires and what is really important for why two people hook up.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
In this episode our series on Academia and Industry continues with the next part of my interview with Professor Ryan D'Arcy and how people can begin to transition from academic laboratories to industry laboratories. What challenges and what benefits lie ahead?
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc., an objective quick measure of brain health available today. If you would like to know more about NeuroCatch Inc. please go to our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
This episode concludes my interview with Dr Nicole Barbaro where we discuss how fully formed and ending relationships change in both the anxiety to commit and the anxiety to separate. We also talk about how psychology views relationships and the influences that other scientific fields have given to psychology when we try to study romance. This episode will also continue our discussion of what myths and memes about relationships are true but usually with very small effects that do not mean the different sexes and genders are never going to see eye to eye.
Nicole Barbaro brings you the modern psychological view of relationships; how do humans bond, where do we stumble and in the end how do we end relationships? You probably know all of these things from your own life but when we are talking about science it has to be replicable, it has to work for the whole population and we normally want it to survive a statistical analysis or two. I cannot promise a flattering view of relationships in this episode, but I can promise the scientific view.
Many PhDs and university researchers will leave their positions after five years to move onto corporate office and laboratory jobs which in academia is known as moving to industry. This episode is the start of a new mini-series coming out fortnightly on Mondays where I break down what the move from academic labs to corporate jobs looks like and where the prizes are greater and what traps lie along the way.
Joining me is returning guest Prof Ryan D'Arcy who is both a CSO and Professor bringing his rare perspective on both sides of the debate to see what bridges the two worlds
Today's episode is with Dr Awais Aftab who is a practising psychiatrist in the U.S.A. Today he is talking about what someone can expect from the American psychiatric service in its many different forms from the state level to the countrywide federal level. We also talk about how care is approached when treating people with psychiatric disorders that can be treated as part of everyday life and what treatment is like for those with conditions so severe they have to be committed involuntarily for their own safety. This episode does not discuss ways to improve the service or discusses if the current systems are 'correct', the only intention is to talk about what is there right now.
Parkinson's is a neurodegenerative disorder that causes the loss of movement in people. The dopamine circuits that span the brain begins to deteriorate and a person will become more rigid, lose fine motor control and eventually even aspects of cognitive and emotional processing. Much is being done to treat Parkinson's around the world but today we are studying how to better understand the beginning of the disease. Prof. Borghammer has the amazing title of being a Nuclear Medic and uses radioactive isotopes to measure the metabolism of dopamine not just across the brain but also in our intestines. The intestines have a complex neural structure of their own and research spanning decades is now showing that dopamine degeneration may begin outside of the brain.
Emotions are a bit of a minefield when you run a science podcast. Emotions are constant for human beings so everyone knows what they are and can talk about their emotions all day but scientists have very precise ways to discuss emotions. This means you end up talking a lot about terms and techniques that seem to just be making an everyday thing needlessly complex. In this episode, we do a bit of myth-busting and talk about what all the terms from emotion and mood through to valence and affect mean. We also talk about how our guest studies emotion data from a sleep deprivation lab and the surprising findings we find what shows how we act and think doesn’t always match how we feel or say we feel.
This episode we are talking about the kinds of moral behaviours that children show as they grow up. Children develop their morals over time and one big question is whether children are moral because they want to be, to uphold altruism and Justice or because they are afraid of being punished and would like to get a reward for getting someone else in trouble. We don't exactly know is the clear question and that is what this episode is going to explore. We are talking with Meltem Yucel about her work on how we can understand if children are or are not moral in the way we would judge adults. There is also some interesting extra content on the 'Theory of Puppets' which was a fun extra I had during recording
To finish off the deep dive that has been going on through December with Prof. Teachman’s lab we have Professor Teachman herself. In this episode, we are talking with Bethany about what it is like to run a lab day to day and best support the work of multiple researchers at a Ph.D. level and above. We see how Bethany juggles the needs of a scientist, clinician, administration, and manager all in one job. For those who want to be a lecturer/professor, this is a first-hand look into what the job is.
In social psychology, we don't just study how people act around others but we also study how humans understand one another. Social psychology accepts that our understanding of other people is not perfect and we are still trying to understand the rules that explain how we predict what other people do. In this episode, we talk with Dr Alan Jern about his studies on whether simplicity or complexity is preferred when we get into other people's heads. More than usual in this series we turn the experimental lens in on ourselves.
In part 3 of Think Fast’s deep dive into what an academic lab is like we are moving onto the hardcore analysis. We talk with another researcher who is best trying to find out how to make predictive models of how people go through the therapies provided by Prof. Teachman’s lab and other interventions people may be using. It is not always obvious from the outset how a study needs to be analysed; you should have an idea but also expect to be surprised. This time we talk about how new data can mean new training and building up ideas that other researchers haven’t thought of before. Which when you think about it is the entire idea of being a scientist.
This episode is about the neuroscientists that find themselves in labs which work with the public to help with health and self-improvement services. Toby Pasman originally trained in an academic lab during his undergraduate but after graduating decided to work in a corporate lab studying neurofeedback and neural manipulation that can help people to live better and healthier lives. Today we are talking with Toby to talk about his experience in working in both a university and corporate laboratory, what is similar, what isn't and where are the differences. If you are interested in the move from the academic settings to the wider corporate world this is a great episode for taking that first jump and learning about the topic that every academic is talking about in 2020.
This episode is about cannabis, for decades it has been used by people to manage their mental health providing anxiety alleviating effects and supported by a range of other anecdotal evidence. With cannabis only recently being legalised across many countries in the Western world or at least approved in various forms for medicinal uses research about the effects of cannabis on mental health was light on the ground. In this episode, we are talking with Dr Carrie Cuttler about one of the first mass population studies into the effects of cannabis on people's mental health using big data and peer-reviewed statistical methods. We talk about the good, the bad and how scientists view what cannabis can do for us.
This show is sponsored by NeuroCatch Inc, an objective measure of brain health, to find out more please follow the link on our website www.watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk.
Dr. Asaf Marco is a memory expert from MIT who came on episode 9 of Think Fast. His work studies how memory formation and the genes instead our neurons can be manipulated to better understand the day to day working of human memory formation. This episode was fascinating too because his lab has used newly bred research mice with specifically created neurons that help both with fluorescence when the memory systems are 'active' and also to be super precise to the conditions Dr Marco wanted to study. The studies attached on our site watercoolerneuroscience.co.uk were gifted to the site by Dr Marco so those who want to learn more about his work can find out, for those who just want the overview please press play
In this episode, Bryan Roth is talking with our host Wilf Nelson about how serotonin and hallucinogens bind. Hallucinogens have received a lot of press recently for their uses in medicine and helping those with conditions traditionally resistant to other medical interventions but we will still don't know a lot about how they actually bind to cells. If we knew that if we had the secrets of what a hallucinogen is doing when it attaches to a neuron, or more specifically a receptor, would we need hallucinogens or could we find better and safer workarounds? On this episode of Think Fast, we talk with one of the scientists who is doing exactly that, breaking down the secrets of neurons and receptors to advance our future in both neuroscience and neuroscience medicine.
Sleep is a deep and rich topic in Psychology and Neuroscience because while it doesn't have the flashiness of 'what is consciousness' it is still a state that we occupy for around a third of lives and yet we understand very little of. In this episode we are not talking about what the neurons do but instead we are talking about the rest of the cells in the brain, the glial and specifically astroctyes, and what their role in sleep is. The glial have been called the life support system of the brain and since sleep is so restorative to our brains it would make sense that the life support system has some major roles to play in keeping our brain healthy. While this is all true our guest today is talking about how it is not only the neurons that have something to do with the brain's functioning during sleep. It is time to dive in and Think Fast.
Antje was a guest on season two of WaterCooler Neuroscience discussing her work with auditory perception and how that effects those with hearing impairment and hearing aids. In this episode we talk about how the last six months have been for her and her lab and the work that she has been doing with the Acoustical Society on the remote testing wiki to ensure quality research can continue during a global pandemic.
If you are interested in the Acoustical Society's work for your own research please check out their work through this link: https://www.spatialhearing.org/remotetesting/Issues/Issues.
In this episode of think fast we are speaking with Brigitte Lavoie who is a neuroscientist that worked on the fundamentals of antagonist muscles, when we need one muscle to contract and another to relax. Most motions our bodies does automatically keep the balance between two sets of muscles in an equilibrium thanks to a series of reflexes but walking is different and one of the main skills humans learn in our earliest years. This episode explores the research into how we walk and where we need automatic reflexes and when we need them to be overridden. This episode is particularly special because it covers science so foundational to modern brain science every neuroscientist I know had to learn this.