Kalmyk Cultural Heritage Project (CLAN RITUALS): Recent Episodes
Cambridge University
Although separated territorially from the rest of the Mongolian world, contemporary Kalmyks continue to practice customs common among other Mongolian groups, including various rituals that preserve and perpetuate kinship links. The main aim of clan rituals is to preserve and consolidate kinship groups not only by worshiping the clan or local deities, appeasing ancestors, and cleansing native land but also by engaging all clan or family members in the ritual. Clan rituals are often performed by inviting a Buddhist monk or a ritual specialist (medlgch) who reads mantras, prayers, and gives advice.
Tatyana says that gossiping is not only bad for gossipers themselves but for their children as well. To counter a gossip, people perform a ritual known as ‘cutting a black tongue’ which is accompanied by reading well-wishes and prayers. The person for whom it is performed also bites a white and a black threat symbolizing the destruction of the power of the gossip.
Maria says that the terrain around the village of Bolshoi Tsaryn is flat, with no mounds or barrows. The nearest river is in a place called Yangal. Maria’s husband was from the Taltakhin clan whose patrons are the goddesses White and Green Tara. The patron of Maria’s mother’s clan is Anja Burkhn. Maria reminisces about her childhood when one day she saw papers flying on the steppe presumably from the nearby temples that had been ransacked by the Bolsheviks. She was warned by her mother not to touch any paper. In 1929 the local monks were arrested and sent into exile. Those who were spared hid their identity and stopped performing religious rituals.
Danil and Sergei say that they perform the ritual of gal tyalgn when someone in their family sees a dream in which their ancestors request this ritual. For the ritual, they slaughter a sheep and put certain offerings on a fire, including the sacrificial sheep’s head (with its tongue and jaw removed) and its legs, biscuits, candies and milk. The meat of the sheep is shared among the participants. Sheep bones left from the feast are burnt on the fire. The ritual is directed by the elder of their clan.
Tseren says that the ritual of gazr-usn tyaklgn is performed in the open space. People gather on top of a hill where they slaughter a sacrificial ram, while monks read prayers. This ritual is done two or three times a year, usually in the middle of summer and at the end of autumn. As an offering to the masters of water, people make a boat on which they stick a white flag. After the ritual, the participants receive food.
Vasiliy talks about a ritual performed by fishermen before going fishing:
On the shores we kill a sacrificial sheep. The head of the sheep is put on a raft made from the vine bush and sent to drift on the water. During the ritual people pray so that they have a good catch. After that people go fishing. Before throwing the nets, the fishermen toss white coins into the water.
Konstantin talks about the rituals of gal tyalgn (fire worship), gazr tyaklgn (worship of land) and us tyaklgn (worship of water):
Mingyan talks about how in the 1990s Kalmyks began to revive their clans. He also talks about kinship terminology:
Sanal says that gal tyalgn is a worship of fire and ancestors. It has to be done in the presence of a monk. Offerings that are put on a fire include mutton wrapped in its fat, butter and milk. Sanal performs this ritual in his ancestral land.
Olga reminisces that for this ritual people first made a fire where planks were joined together to form a circle. Inside the circle put special texts. Offerings put on the fire included a sheep’s head, its four legs, fat, as well as bones left from the feast. This ritual is performed either for the dead or for girls before their wedding.
Ivan talks about how he transported people on his tractor to a place called Dzharun Kashor whey they performed clan rituals, including us tyalgn and gazr tyalgn (worship of water and land). These rituals were performed at the end of August or the beginning of September. It involved a sacrificial sheep whose intestine fat, bones and skin were burnt on a fire. At the site the pilgrims made fresh tea and sprinkled vodka. Ivan stopped transporting people to that place since he sold his tractor 10 years ago.
Dmitriy talks about the ritual of worshiping fire with the aim of appeasing local deities.
Vladimir talks about a ritual of offering to a fire, land and water. This is his story. When my older relatives passed away, I began to perform these rituals. I have been doing it for more than 50 years now. Only those who can speak Kalmyk should perform this ritual because it is believed that ancestors understand only Kalmyk. A ritual of offering to a fire is performed in the following situations: during a wedding, before the construction of a house or moving into a new house, and in case of tachal (i.e. when the deceased haunts the living). On a wedding day, the groom’s delegation brings the bride’s side a live sheep. This sheep is offered to a fire. It should be slaughtered by tearing off its aorta. Before building a house or moving into one, a man should make an offering to the spiritual master of land. In the past, during a ritual of making offerings to ancestors Kalmyks burnt three sheep bones: a sternum, a scapula and an ankle. From sheepskin Kalmyks made horse reins so that the deceased could find the right path to the afterworld. The sternum bone is wrapped into the reins and then the offering is covered with fat sheets from the sheep’s intestines. Other offerings such as incenses (sangin idyan), hot butter, red and white coins are put on top of the wrapped-up sternum. Coins are offered to both Green Tara and Tsagan Aav. During a funeral, Kalmyks throw bones with meat from the front right side of a sheep into a fire. This meat should be twisted over the fire by uttering ‘Khyur-khyuryu’. This is done in order to ask the deceased to grant his/her blessings (kishg) to living relatives. Kalmyks also believe that a deceased person can cause what is called tachal. In order to get rid of it, one needs to bring a long-sleeved shirt, a robe or a piece of fabric to a temple. The prayers read in the temple are believed to provide the deceased with clothes which he/she may not have in the afterworld. A ritual of offering to land is performed for the well-being of livestock so that they have enough water to drink and grass to eat. In the past, for this ritual Kalmyks went to the steppe where they slaughtered a sheep. They sprinkled vodka upwards and lit seven candles (zul) thus symbolising the seven stars of Ursa Major. During this ritual, lamas read prayers and people uttered well wishes to each other. A ritual of offering to water is different. It involved a boat and a figure of a sheep made from bulrush. Food offerings were put on the boat along with seven burning candles. The boat was pushed into the river. Each Kalmyk clan performs these rituals in their own ways. Having said that, they all share the same tradition. About Zul. In the past, Kalmyks made a boat-shaped vessel to put candles inside. These vessels were made from various materials, including dough or potatoes. The number of candles in a boat had to correspond to the age of a family member to whom the candles were dedicated. For those who were 60 and older, Kalmyks made only about 10 candles each. During Zul, boats with burning candles were put outside when the first stars appeared in the sky. People watched their boats until they burnt out. Afterwards they fried their boats and ate them. In the past, children were given a piece from old people’s boats so that they lived longer. There are three days of fasting in a month. These are the eighth, fifteenth and thirtieth days of each month. On these days, gods are believed to descend on earth to see how people live. It is important that housewives keep candles in their houses burning. Today many people complain that their children get ill easily. Knowledgeable people recommend that Kalmyks worship their ancestors so that their children stay healthy. Kalmyks always made food offerings to their ancestors even when they had little to eat. At the end of the video, Vladimir briefly talks about traditional behaviour. He says that men should never brag that they live well and in plenty, because in one’s life good and bad things go together.
When it did not rain and drought followed, old people gathered and prayed for rain, making offerings to the river. People prepared food and vodka and lit up zul (candles). While reading prayers monks would dig out the pit for the fire, they stacked logs in the pit and lit them. People would throw everything they brought into the fire, including salt, melted butter, sweets and bortsg. Then they put offerings on a raft or a plank together with lit up zul and set this raft with offerings out on the river. When the prayer was over, people would eat the rest of the food while praying. People would stay while the fire and zul were burning, they sat and discussed their issues and then went to their homes. Sometimes it rained after such ritual. At the time when there were no clergymen we made offerings to the water ourselves and it rained, although not every time.
The video features the ritual of gal tyalgn (fire worship) as it was performed in Orgakin for the members of the Boltakhin clan.
Mergen says that gal tyalgn is a ritual during which people make offerings to their ancestors. In Tibet there is a similar ritual called ‘a fiery offering to the spirit on the hill.’ In Kalmykia all rituals have been mixed up with one another. During this ritual, people make offerings with three ‘white’, three ‘milk’, and three ‘sweet’ foods. The ritual is completed by reading a prayer in Kalmyk. During the ritual it is also mentioned that the recipients are our ancestors, the spirit of Chingis Khan, the spiritual protectors of clans and people.
Svetlana talks about the ritual of gazr-us tyaklgn (a worship of the spiritual masters of land and water sources):
Galina says that the ritual of worshipping the spiritual masters of nature is performed in an open space on the steppe. This ritual involves a fire which is used to burn milk, butter, and meat as an offering to the spiritual masters of land and water sources. She says that in the past Kalmyks performed such rituals in their ancestral land, near a water source. Monks were involved in reading prayers at such rituals.
Lama Sanan says that it is during gal tyalgn rituals that people make animal sacrifice, which is sin in itself (kilnts). According to him, this is a remnant of shamanism. Sanan says that there is a sutra about one non-Buddhist teacher whose disciples offered him animal sacrifice, therefore making his position in hell even worse. Sanan also points out that traditions change, and if innovations bring improvements, they can be adopted.
In this video lama Dordzhi-Tseren performs a ritual of gal tyalgn (fire ritual) for a man and his family on the outskirts of Elista.
Lama Agvan Eshey say that rituals of worshipping fire (gal tyalgn) and making offerings to the spirits of water (usn tyaklgn) are popular in Kalmykia.
Khongor relays a story about how he participated in a ritual of gal tyalgn (fire ritual).
Evgeniy says that rituals to prolong one’s life or to worship a fire (gal tyalgn) are useful. He himself performed such rituals near water as well as in the steppe. Usually such rituals are done on a lama’s advice and require preparation, time and effort. Such rituals involve reading prayers to one’s protecting deities and establishing a connection with one’s ancestors. Since people remain alone with their inner thoughts, such rituals resemble a Buddhist meditative practice.
Aisa says that people in her family and clan perform the ritual of gal tyalgn on her grandfather’s land.
Zurgan talks about the rituals of gazr us tyaklgn (worship of land and water) and gal tyalgn (fire worship):
Galina talks about how people in her village perform the ritual of gal tyalgn (fire ritual):
Galina says that gazar-usn takilgn (a ritual of worshiping land and water) is performed on various occasions, such as when it does not rain for a long time or when one’s livestock becomes sick. Before conducting this ritual, people should go to a temple and ask for an auspicious day to conduct this ritual. People should bring dairy products to the ritual, which should be done close to a water source. The ritual of worshipping earth is conducted when people buy a new house or property. The parents of a man who is getting married also perform this ritual. During usun-arshan, people also worship land and water by tossing coins around and praying to Tsagan Aav and other spiritual masters of that place. People consecrate water turning into ‘arshan’ or elixir. That is why the holiday is called usun-arshan literally meaning ‘water-elixir’.
Telo Tulku: Due to misunderstanding, people sacrifice animals. This is not what Buddhism is about. This is totally against Buddhist principles when people say that during gal tyalgn (fire rituals) they need to kill a sheep as an offering.
Khargchin says that during this ritual people put ‘clean’ meat, fat, butter, and milk into the fire. Except for pork, any meat can be used for this purpose. While putting these offerings on the fire, people should utter ‘khyurya, khyurya’ three times.
This ritual is carried out near water sources early in the morning during Ur Sar. Its purpose is to bring rain, success and luck. Offerings to deities include the milk of a white goat, a bouquet of flowers, candles, incense, candies, Kalmyk tea and other items. After prayers have been read, the food offerings are put by a man (not a woman) on a piece of wood and floated on the water. According to Larisa, during this particular ritual the weather often changes, rains alternating with rainbows.
This particular ritual is performed in Dzhidzhatn, a holy place where a famous monk was buried. Many people go there to leave hii mor' flags and ribbons with the colours of their clans, to worship and offer omskul (white, red and yellow cloth). People also take soil from this place to purify their houses or keep as a protective substance. Rain-making rituals are perfomed to make grass grow, keep water sources abundant, as well as for the health and wellbeing of people. The performers prostrate on the ground, circle the place three times clockwise, make offerings and light candles. Lamas and those who know how to do it, read prayers. According to Larisa, during rain-making rituals birds fly above the place. This place is where people also perform various clan rituals. Druring such rituals young people get to know each other, plant trees and clean up rubbish. Rituals performed at this place are believed to be effective.
Larisa talks about the ritual of gal tyalgn that was performed on a hill called Ova Kermen in the village of Orgakin in Iki-Burul'sky rayon of Kalmykia. The hill was named after a girl called Kermen who was buried there. The ritual was carried out in the autumn with the participation of all clans that live in the village. The kind of food offered to deities during the ritual included dairy products, candies, vodka and Kalmyk buscuits. It was only men who went to the top of the hill to lay out stones, read prayers and utter well-wishes. Women stayed at the bottom of the hill. The ritual was completed by all the participants, both men and women, who formed a circle and held each other's hands uttering khuree. Afterwards the participants threw wheat and rice grains on the ground symbolising an increase in the number of livestock and wellbeing for all the clans involved. Larisa contends that clan rituals not only unite people but are also effective.
Sangadzhi says that some Kalmyk rituals involve rites that are similar to exorcism performed in Christianity. There are also secret rituals that should not be even talked about or mentioned. For example, it is forbidden to video or photo-record the ritual of amnya dolig (substitution rituals). Only knowledgeable people can perform these rituals. If such rituals are performed in the wrong way, the repercussions for the performers could be very harsh.
The traditional dwelling of the Kalmyks is the nomadic, round shaped yurt which does not have corners. It is believed that evil spirits (shulmus) hide in the corners. The ritual of cleansing one's home is performed after funerals or when people fall ill. A Buddhist monk or a folk healer is invited to carry out this ritual. A white cloth is spread out on a table. The head of a sheep, tea, vodka, milk and sweets are laid on the cloth. Five candles – one on the table and four on each corner of the house – are lit up and prayers are read by the performer. All members of the family need to be present. After the candles go out, everyone goes outside and sets up a fire. Offerings that are put on the fire include what remains from the candles, half of the sweets, and the head of a sheep that has to be placed so that its muzzle faces towards the house. The fire has also to be sprinkled with vodka and milk. Then all the participants move clockwise around the fire. Afterwards, rice is thrown where the candles stood. The grains of rice should not be removed for three days. During this period it is also forbidden to take anything out of the house. People can perform this ritual annually thus strengthening their ties with their ancestors while cleansing themselves.
Sangadzhi says that gal tyalgn is the most widespread ritual in Kalmykia performed during important events in the lives of the Kalmyks. It is performed during weddings when a bride leaves her paternal house for that of her husband, when people build new houses and at funerals. During gal tyalgn food offerings are made to ancestors and local spirits in order to remove obstacles, to secure the continuation of clans, etc. Sometimes offerings include sheep. Sangadzhi talks about how to prepare a sheep for this ritual, which parts of the sheep to offer and explains the symbolism behind it.
This ritual is usually performed during Ur Sar with the purpose of preventing the death of livestock, to bring rain, as well as for the wellbeing of livestock. Sangadzhi describes the ritual briefly. It is usually performed in an ancestral place. First, a piece of white cloth is spread on the ground, which symbolizes purity. Offerings put on this cloth include meat, the head of a sheep, tea, vodka, seven kinds of sweets, dairy products and incenses. In front of the cloth with the offerings, are placed seven candles made of dough and a stick is erected which has colourful ribbons tied to it. The colours of the ribbons should correspond to those of the clan(s) that perform the ritual. Each clan in Kalmykia has a different colour representing them. The ends of the ribons should have white and yellow coins tied to them. The candles should be lit up accompanied by prayers. Prior to this, a fire is prepared. When the candles go out, men offer tea to Tsagan Aav, vodka to Okn Tengri and milk to ancestors by sprinkling these substances to the sky. Afterwards food offerings are put on the fire. Finally, in order to purify themselves men circle the fire three times. Women do the same after the men have finished. Milk is poured around the fire which symbolizes a white milky road without obstacles for all the participants. Sometimes, people use a goat as a sacrificial animal, especially when there has been a long drought, for its is believed that the goat fends off evil spirits. For the same reason Kalmyks keep goats among their livestock. This particular ritual is performed slightly differently in different places for different purposes. For example, it can also be performed in order to counter and deal with curses. According to Kalmyk belief, the toughest and the most difficult to deal with curses are made by pregnant women, for their curse is believed to have a double effect. In order not to anger them, Kalmyks show special respect to pregnant women.
This ritual is usually performed in the spring during Ur Sar, a time when grass appears and livestock breeds. Its purpose is to bring rain and success. This ritual is performed in sacred or holy locations. Chapchachi in the village of Chilgir is one of these places. This place is also known as the burial place of Burkhan bagshi, one of the elders of the Zyungar clan whose body, it is said, was exhumed before World War Two and transported to an unknown location for study. In the past in the exact place of his burial stood a prayer house. People took soil from there for medicinal purposes. This activity continues to this day.
Anna says that gal tyalgn, or worship to fire, is a special ritual where a sheep is sacrificed. The following parts of a sheep are used at this ritual: a sheep’s head covered with semzh fat (a fat layer that covers internal organs), its neck, the right front leg, the liver, and kidneys. All these parts should be cooked before offering them to fire. The rest of the meat is then offered to kinsfolk who are participating in the ritual. During the ritual, guests utter well-wishes, all of which are believed to be heard by ancestors. The ritual of gal tyalgn is very complex and not every person can perform it. Anna herself performs gal tyalgn in the courtyard of her house. In the past she performed this ritual in Lagan’ as well, where her husband is originally from. On that occasion Anna was accompanied by a knowledgeable woman who organized and directed the whole ritual.
Anna also talks about how she came to believe in the efficiency of this ritual, how she taught herself to count beads (a Buddhist practice) and read mantras.
Maria says that in her family they did the ritual of gal tyalgn at home and that she never saw how it is done outside. People perform this ritual during births, weddings or when someone is sick. After death, a person whose birth year is related to a fire, needs this ritual to be performed on him/her. The ritual of gazr tyaklgn also involves fire.
Viktoria talsk about the ritual of gazr tyaklgn (worship of land) in a place called Chapchacha:
Galina says that her father conducted this ritual in October. He slaughtered a sheep in the traditional way without spilling its blood on the ground. Then he lit a fire in the stove at home and tossed fat and butter into the fire. Her father also performed this ritual outside near a spring. He invited his relatives, a monk, and cooked meat. The monk red prayers, and then all ate the meat and drank tea. Galina and other children helped her father during the ritual.
This video begins with the abbot of the Orgakin Temple, Batyr Elistaev, reading prayers inside his temple. Afterwards, Batyr tells the laity about the ‘month of gal tyalgn’ when these kind of rituals are performed. Gal tyalgn are rituals to worship Tsagan Aav and clan ancestors. In this video Batyr first invites the deity Ochirvani, who is the keeper of the teachings of Buddha and protector of all Mongol groups. Ochirvani is also regarded as protector of the Orgakin Temple. Then Batyr invites Tsagan Aav which is an important shamanic deity. Afterwards, everyone goes outside for the next part of the ritual. The people make a fire with dried dung and wood and light candles. When Batyr reads mantras, the laity sits around the fire and throws offerings, including incenses, dairy products and sheep’s fat, into the flames. Then all participants stand up, hold each other by their hands, utter khuree and jump up with their hands stretched upwards. Then all move around the fire three times clockwise, reading the mantra om mani padme khum. The ritual concludes with a short prayer read by Batyr inside the temple.
In this video the ritual of gal tyalgn is performed by the members of the Taltakhn clan in the village of Tsagan Nur, Kalmykia. A Buddhist monk is in charge of the whole ritual.
Traditional customs that regulate everyday life and religious practices have had an important place in the spiritual culture of the Kalmyks. Among such customs are pre-Buddhist beliefs and sacrificial offerings to the deities of land and water which have survived to this day. The ritual of offering to the deities of water is one such example, which is usually performed in spring, in early summer, or during one's first visit to a place with water. The aim of this ritual is to appease the masters of water and to call in luck and prosperity. The video footage presented here shows this ritual performed during the lotus flowering period at the Caspian sea. The ritual, accompanied by Buddhist prayers, was performed at dawn by fishermen and lay men. Offerings to the deities consisted of 'white food' (dairy products), fruit, sweets, scents and two candles. The two candles are believed to symbolise a synthesis or mixture of pre-Buddhist and Buddhist elements, for they are offered not to one but to a number of deities. In the past domestic animals were used for sacrifice, but with the revival of Buddhism in today's Kalmykia the sacrificial animal has been replaced by food products.