Human Inequality in Global Perspective: Recent Episodes
A. Haroon Akram-Lodhi
The past year has been a tumultuous one -- the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way the world works, but in ways that we do not yet understand, while #BlackLivesMatter has been challenging deep-seated structures of authority around the world.
We know that the COVID-19 pandemic is a pandemic of inequality -- marginalized and racialized communities are far more vulnerable to the SARS-COV-2 virus. We know that #BlackLivesMatter challenges structures of inequality. We live in a world that on the one hand is richer than at any other time in human history but which on the other hand sees hundreds of millions of people living in poverty and global inequality being historically unprecedented. These forces can be starkly illustrated: on 20 July 2020 Jeff Bezos, the richest man in the world, added US$13 billion to his wealth in just one day.
Our world can at times appear to be out of control and beyond our comprehension. Yet it is possible to cut through this complexity and and unpack the key factors shaping the contemporary world. Human inequality in global perspective is designed to enable you to understand how our world of unparalleled affluence and immense deprivation came to be. After all, if we want the world to become a better place the first thing that we must do is try to better understand it.
International development assistance, or "aid", is the transfer of resources at concessional rates of interest, which means rates of interest that are lower than those that could be obtained on financial markets. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development goes further than this in formally defining aid, when it says that a least 25 per cent of the transfer must take the form of a grant, that the transfer must have improvements in human welfare through economic development as its objective, and the transfer must take place between official bilateral and multilateral agencies.
International development assistance is a complex and messy business. Nonetheless, it can have dramatic impacts on human well-being. It is notable, for example, that when South Korean officials speak of their development experience since the end of the Korean War, they always highlight the role of aid in being a catalyst of social transformation. But in order to have a catalytic impact, the state receiving aid must be capable of absorbing it -- and that is often not the case.
Part 5 of this Episode inquires about the role of international development assistance in the process of international development, and summarizes how international development happens.
International development assistance, or "aid", is the transfer of resources at concessional rates of interest, which means rates of interest that are lower than those that could be obtained on financial markets. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development goes further than this in formally defining aid, when it says that a least 25 per cent of the transfer must take the form of a grant, that the transfer must have improvements in human welfare through economic development as its objective, and the transfer must take place between official bilateral and multilateral agencies.
International development assistance is a complex and messy business. Nonetheless, it can have dramatic impacts on human well-being. It is notable, for example, that when South Korean officials speak of their development experience since the end of the Korean War, they always highlight the role of aid in being a catalyst of social transformation. But in order to have a catalytic impact, the state receiving aid must be capable of absorbing it -- and that is often not the case.
Part 4 of this Episode considers Canada's international development assistance.
International development assistance, or "aid", is the transfer of resources at concessional rates of interest, which means rates of interest that are lower than those that could be obtained on financial markets. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development goes further than this in formally defining aid, when it says that a least 25 per cent of the transfer must take the form of a grant, that the transfer must have improvements in human welfare through economic development as its objective, and the transfer must take place between official bilateral and multilateral agencies.
International development assistance is a complex and messy business. Nonetheless, it can have dramatic impacts on human well-being. It is notable, for example, that when South Korean officials speak of their development experience since the end of the Korean War, they always highlight the role of aid in being a catalyst of social transformation. But in order to have a catalytic impact, the state receiving aid must be capable of absorbing it -- and that is often not the case.
Part 3 of this Episode explores recent developments in international development assistance policy and practice.
International development assistance, or "aid", is the transfer of resources at concessional rates of interest, which means rates of interest that are lower than those that could be obtained on financial markets. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development goes further than this in formally defining aid, when it says that a least 25 per cent of the transfer must take the form of a grant, that the transfer must have improvements in human welfare through economic development as its objective, and the transfer must take place between official bilateral and multilateral agencies.
International development assistance is a complex and messy business. Nonetheless, it can have dramatic impacts on human well-being. It is notable, for example, that when South Korean officials speak of their development experience since the end of the Korean War, they always highlight the role of aid in being a catalyst of social transformation. But in order to have a catalytic impact, the state receiving aid must be capable of absorbing it -- and that is often not the case.
Part 2 of this Episode examines the reason why international development assistance may be highly volatile, in the amounts transferred, in the places that receive the transfer, and in the objective of the transfer.
International development assistance, or "aid", is the transfer of resources at concessional rates of interest, which means rates of interest that are lower than those that could be obtained on financial markets. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development goes further than this in formally defining aid, when it says that a least 25 per cent of the transfer must take the form of a grant, that the transfer must have improvements in human welfare through economic development as its objective, and the transfer must take place between official bilateral and multilateral agencies.
International development assistance is a complex and messy business. Nonetheless, it can have dramatic impacts on human well-being. It is notable, for example, that when South Korean officials speak of their development experience since the end of the Korean War, they always highlight the role of aid in being a catalyst of social transformation. But in order to have a catalytic impact, the state receiving aid must be capable of absorbing it -- and that is often not the case.
Part 1 of this Episode defines international development assistance and distinguishes it from private aid.
As we have seen, globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. However, the process of globalization is not unfettered; it is regulated, by the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO has an immense impact on our lives, but it is little known, and little understood. Moreover, given that there has been a slowdown in globalization since 2008 it is important to understand how governments have responded. Finally, given the role of globalization in the contemporary world, we need to ask: has globalization contributed to global poverty and human inequality?
In Part 4 of this Episode evaluate why countries enter into international trade and investment agreements, and whether these agreements are associated with rising human inequality.
As we have seen, globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. However, the process of globalization is not unfettered; it is regulated, by the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO has an immense impact on our lives, but it is little known, and little understood. Moreover, given that there has been a slowdown in globalization since 2008 it is important to understand how governments have responded. Finally, given the role of globalization in the contemporary world, we need to ask: has globalization contributed to global poverty and human inequality?
In Part 3 of this Episode we will explore the reasons why and workings of bilateral and regional trade and investment agreements, paying close attention to those with which Canada is involved.
As we have seen, globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. However, the process of globalization is not unfettered; it is regulated, by the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO has an immense impact on our lives, but it is little known, and little understood. Moreover, given that there has been a slowdown in globalization since 2008 it is important to understand how governments have responded. Finally, given the role of globalization in the contemporary world, we need to ask: has globalization contributed to global poverty and human inequality?
In Part 2 of this Episode we will discuss the most recent "round" of global trade negotiations organized by the WTO, the so-called "Doha Development Agenda."
As we have seen, globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. However, the process of globalization is not unfettered; it is regulated, by the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO has an immense impact on our lives, but it is little known, and little understood. Moreover, given that there has been a slowdown in globalization since 2008 it is important to understand how governments have responded. Finally, given the role of globalization in the contemporary world, we need to ask: has globalization contributed to global poverty and human inequality?
In Part 1 of this Episode we will examine the organization, structure and purpose of the WTO.
Globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. Principally demonstrated by an increasing trade-intensity of production, an increasing share of foreign direct investment in production, and an increasing share of portfolio investment in production, globalization is strongest in the production of manufactured goods that are increasingly assembled in the global factories that serve as the coordinates of international supply network. However, the slowdown in globalization that has happened since 2008 begs the question: is globalization inevitable? And if it is not, is it uniformly good?
Part 4 of this Episode critically evaluates globalization and finds the propositions of some of its proponents less than convincing even as it contributes to global human inequality.
Globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. Principally demonstrated by an increasing trade-intensity of production, an increasing share of foreign direct investment in production, and an increasing share of portfolio investment in production, globalization is strongest in the production of manufactured goods that are increasingly assembled in the global factories that serve as the coordinates of international supply network. However, the slowdown in globalization that has happened since 2008 begs the question: is globalization inevitable? And if it is not, is it uniformly good?
Part 3 of this Episode dissects the corporate power that has accrued to transnational corporations and the implications of that power.
Globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. Principally demonstrated by an increasing trade-intensity of production, an increasing share of foreign direct investment in production, and an increasing share of portfolio investment in production, globalization is strongest in the production of manufactured goods that are increasingly assembled in the global factories that serve as the coordinates of international supply network. However, the slowdown in globalization that has happened since 2008 begs the question: is globalization inevitable? And if it is not, is it uniformly good?
Part 2 of this Episode introduces transnational corporations as the central agent of the process of globalization.
Globalization is the economic integration of trade, production and finance on a world scale. Principally demonstrated by an increasing trade-intensity of production, an increasing share of foreign direct investment in production, and an increasing share of portfolio investment in production, globalization is strongest in the production of manufactured goods that are increasingly assembled in the global factories that serve as the coordinates of international supply network. However, the slowdown in globalization that has happened since 2008 begs the question: is globalization inevitable? And if it is not, is it uniformly good?
Part 1 of this Episode defines the key characteristics of globalization.
The debt crisis that emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s forced a number of states in Asia, Africa and Latin America to seek out financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Assistance was given in exchange for a dismantling of the developmental state and the implementation of structural adjustment polices based upon macroeconomic stabilization, external trade de-regulation, and internal market liberalization. These policies have effectively continued into the 21st century, in the form of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers in developing countries and austerity in the developed countries. Yet the success of these policies on their own terms can be questioned. At the same time, these policies laid the basis of contemporary globalization, and the inequality associated with contemporary globalization, by opening up states to inflows and outflows of trade and investment.
In Part 4 of this Episode, the effectiveness of structural adjustment, Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and austerity are evaluated by examining the consequences of such policies.
The debt crisis that emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s forced a number of states in Asia, Africa and Latin America to seek out financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Assistance was given in exchange for a dismantling of the developmental state and the implementation of structural adjustment polices based upon macroeconomic stabilization, external trade de-regulation, and internal market liberalization. These policies have effectively continued into the 21st century, in the form of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers in developing countries and austerity in the developed countries. Yet the success of these policies on their own terms can be questioned. At the same time, these policies laid the basis of contemporary globalization, and the inequality associated with contemporary globalization, by opening up states to inflows and outflows of trade and investment.
In Part 3 of this Episode, the hallmarks of the so-called "Washington Consensus" are laid out and the content of stabilization, structural adjustment and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers are outlined.
The debt crisis that emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s forced a number of states in Asia, Africa and Latin America to seek out financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Assistance was given in exchange for a dismantling of the developmental state and the implementation of structural adjustment polices based upon macroeconomic stabilization, external trade de-regulation, and internal market liberalization. These policies have effectively continued into the 21st century, in the form of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers in developing countries and austerity in the developed countries. Yet the success of these policies on their own terms can be questioned. At the same time, these policies laid the basis of contemporary globalization, and the inequality associated with contemporary globalization, by opening up states to inflows and outflows of trade and investment.
In Part 2 of this Episode, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank are introduced and explained.
The debt crisis that emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s forced a number of states in Asia, Africa and Latin America to seek out financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Assistance was given in exchange for a dismantling of the developmental state and the implementation of structural adjustment polices based upon macroeconomic stabilization, external trade de-regulation, and internal market liberalization. These policies have effectively continued into the 21st century, in the form of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers in developing countries and austerity in the developed countries. Yet the success of these policies on their own terms can be questioned. At the same time, these policies laid the basis of contemporary globalization, and the inequality associated with contemporary globalization, by opening up states to inflows and outflows of trade and investment.
In Part 1 of this Episode, the origins and consequences of the debt crisis are discussed.
Latin America decolonized in the early 19th century. Following the end of World War I, some limited decolonization took place. But as nationalism gathered pace in the 1920s and 1930s mass movements for liberation and independence blossomed. In the aftermath of World War II the decolonization of Asia took place. Starting in the late 1950s and through the 1960s the decolonization of Africa and the Caribbean took place. During the 1970s the decolonization of Oceania took place. Later still, Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, Timor-Leste and South Sudan achieved their liberation. Today, only a handful of colonies remain.
Part 3 of this Episode explores the key tenets of the development strategy of the newly-independent states of Asia and Africa, import-substituting industrialization, and evaluates the critique that was laid at the door of import-substituting industrialization.
Latin America decolonized in the early 19th century. Following the end of World War I, some limited decolonization took place. But as nationalism gathered pace in the 1920s and 1930s mass movements for liberation and independence blossomed. In the aftermath of World War II the decolonization of Asia took place. Starting in the late 1950s and through the 1960s the decolonization of Africa and the Caribbean took place. During the 1970s the decolonization of Oceania took place. Later still, Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, Timor-Leste and South Sudan achieved their liberation. Today, only a handful of colonies remain.
Part 2 of this Episode looks at the strategy adopted by newly-independent states in Asia and Africa to try and "develop" by improving the living standards and livelihoods of populations, and reflects upon the theoretical basis of this strategy.
Latin America decolonized in the early 19th century. Following the end of World War I, some limited decolonization took place. But as nationalism gathered pace in the 1920s and 1930s mass movements for liberation and independence blossomed. In the aftermath of World War II the decolonization of Asia took place. Starting in the late 1950s and through the 1960s the decolonization of Africa and the Caribbean took place. During the 1970s the decolonization of Oceania took place. Later still, Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, Timor-Leste and South Sudan achieved their liberation. Today, only a handful of colonies remain.
Part 1 of this Episode examines the origins of decolonization, paying particular attention to the end of World War I, the Russian Revolution, and the rise of nationalism across Asia and Africa.
Modern humans first appeared on the planet around 200,000 years ago, and just over 10,000 years ago humanity began the 5,000 year transition from being hunter-gatherers to being farmers. From there, it was another 4,500 years before Europeans starting spreading outwards from Europe in large numbers. So the history of the last 500 years is, in terms of the life of humanity, very recent. If so, it is not credible to believe that the expansion of Europe beyond its geographical boundaries does not continue to have ramifications for people around the world to the present day. In this light, this Episode surveys the history of colonialism from 1500 to 1950, and explores how colonialism shaped and continues to shape contemporary poverty and inequality.
Part 4 of this Episode defines the concept of imperialism as a specific form of colonialism, before evaluating the ways in which Canadian history represents a precise manifestation of colonialism in both theory and practice.
Modern humans first appeared on the planet around 200,000 years ago, and just over 10,000 years ago humanity began the 5,000 year transition from being hunter-gatherers to being farmers. From there, it was another 4,500 years before Europeans starting spreading outwards from Europe in large numbers. So the history of the last 500 years is, in terms of the life of humanity, very recent. If so, it is not credible to believe that the expansion of Europe beyond its geographical boundaries does not continue to have ramifications for people around the world to the present day. In this light, this Episode surveys the history of colonialism from 1500 to 1950, and explores how colonialism shaped and continues to shape contemporary poverty and inequality.
Part 3 of this Episode focuses in on the last phase of colonialism, the so-called "scramble for Africa", and assesses the ways in which colonialism transformed Sub-Saharan Africa in the space of only a few decades.
Modern humans first appeared on the planet around 200,000 years ago, and just over 10,000 years ago humanity began the 5,000 year transition from being hunter-gatherers to being farmers. From there, it was another 4,500 years before Europeans starting spreading outwards from Europe in large numbers. So the history of the last 500 years is, in terms of the life of humanity, very recent. If so, it is not credible to believe that the expansion of Europe beyond its geographical boundaries does not continue to have ramifications for people around the world to the present day. In this light, this Episode surveys the history of colonialism from 1500 to 1950, and explores how colonialism shaped and continues to shape contemporary poverty and inequality.
Part 2 of this Episode examines the history of colonial enslavement, and discusses how enslavement was intimately bound up with the industrial revolution and the development of capitalist economies in both Europe and North America.
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 5 of the Episode examines the characteristics of the very wealthiest, the top one per cent in the distribution of income and wealth.
Modern humans first appeared on the planet around 200,000 years ago, and just over 10,000 years ago humanity began the 5,000 year transition from being hunter-gatherers to being farmers. From there, it was another 4,500 years before Europeans starting spreading outwards from Europe in large numbers. So the history of the last 500 years is, in terms of the life of humanity, very recent. If so, it is not credible to believe that the expansion of Europe beyond its geographical boundaries does not continue to have ramifications for people around the world to the present day. In this light, this Episode surveys the history of colonialism from 1500 to 1950, and explores how colonialism shaped and continues to shape contemporary poverty and inequality.
Part 1 of this Episode explains why Europeans began their outward expansion, and documents the genocide of Indigenous populations that took place as a result of the initial colonial expansion.
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 6 of the Episode looks at explanations of inequality and asks: does it matter?
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 4 of the Episode defines inequality and evaluates global trends in inequality.
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 3 of the Episode looks at non-monetary measures of deprivation, some of which are captured in the Human Development Index.
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 2 of the Episode defines poverty, defines the international poverty line, looks at the global numbers of those that live beneath the international poverty line, before questioning whether the international poverty line is an adequate means by which to evaluate poverty.
What exactly is the state of contemporary poverty and inequality, both in Canada and around the world? In this Episode we will examine definitions of poverty and inequality and, using these definitions, look at estimates of the numbers of those living in poverty and estimates of the state of global human inequality, in order to get a firmer foundation on which to make claims about global poverty and inequality. In addition we will ask the question: why? We will ask this question because before we can propose ways to challenge poverty and inequality we need to know why there is so much poverty and inequality.
Part 1 of the Episode will define per capita income as it is the most common means by which poverty is evaluated in terms of money.
The idea of international development has its origins in US President Harry S Truman's "Four Point" Speech on 20 January 1949. However, even though more than 70 years has passed since that time, "development" still means different things to different people. In this Episode we will explore a variety of meanings of the word "development" and get a better understanding of why development is such a contested word.
Part 2 starts to unpack the meaning of development, using a dictionary to demonstrate the complexity of the idea and to show how within the idea of development lies implicit understandings of the forces that shape the world.
The idea of international development has its origins in US President Harry S Truman's "Four Point" Speech on 20 January 1949. However, even though more than 70 years has passed since that time, "development" still means different things to different people. In this Episode we will explore a variety of meanings of the word "development" and get a better understanding of why development is such a contested word.
Part 1 provides a brief introduction into how our world is interconnected, and in so doing provides a reason why development, whatever it may mean, should matter to all of us.